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stage, with its accessory apartments, should be, as far as possible, two distinct structures, by making the wall between them of brick or concrete of sufficient thickness, aud carrying it considerably above the roofs; it should have as few openings in it as possible, and all of them should be fitted with fireproof doors.

29716. The proposed iron curtain or door to this opening, as at the Prince of Wales's Theatre, has been taken exception to, on the grounds that it is cumbersome, costly, absorbs heat rapidly, and is slow in working. A single plated curtain may be liable to buckle and to become a sheet of red-hot metal. At several theatres Messrs. Clarke, Bunnett & Co. have made a curtain of two screens of wrought iron plate 4th of an inch thick, having an air space of 6 inches between them. The framework is formed of longitudinal and transverse T and angle iron, with external channel iron frame perforated, so that a current of air is continually passing between the two screens. The top portion of the curtain is riveted to double wrought iron girders, secured to the head of an hydraulic ram, which, with the cylinders, are fixed and bolted to the proscenium wall, which varies in thickness from 14 to 18 inches. The movement of the curtain occupies about 30 seconds, in ascending or in descending; it is caused by pulling a lever, and the curtain stops automatically as it reaches the stage level. The lever can be worked from the stage or in the box-office, where it would be under the control of persons remote from the fire. The new iron curtain for the Comédie Française, by M. Edoux, can be set in motion from various parts of the theatre.

2971c. A simpler form of curtain is composed of asbestos, at a less cost. At Manchester it has been applied at the Queen's Theatre, and at the Comedy Theatre. At the latter, the curtain runs in an iron groove closely fixed to each side of the brick work. Being used nghtly in place of the green curtain, it is constantly in working order, and can be dropped instantly. As to the curtain invented by Max Clarke, Mr. Emden considers that the silicate cotton, with which it is lined, has "no texture," and would consequently be liable "to sink down and become dense at the bottom of the curtain, while the top would be thin" and inefficient. He also considered that "no curtain has been invented which, in the ordinary theatre, would readily cut off the auditorium from the stage for more than a limited time." Messrs. Jones, however, state that with "a curtain properly constructed and lined with silicate cotton, the auditorium would be cut off from the stage for any length of time"-say a whole week (British Architect, March 30, 1888). A fireproof curtain put forward by Capt. W. E. Heath is described as "to be of asbestos cloth quilted on a strong canvas, rolled on a roller over a narrow tank of water, and in unrolling it passes under another roller at the bottom of the tank, thus rising perfectly saturated." A further description is given in the Proceedings of the Inst. of Brit. Architects of February 23, 1888, p. 174; and in the Architect, February 17, p. xiv. of Supplement.

Sufficient has perhaps not been said in this work as to the use of silicate cotton or slag wool, a pure mineral fibre, manufactured from iron slag, and quite incombustible. The best non-conductor of heat or sound yet discovered; as a non-radiator of heat or cold it is well established; and acts well in preventing the transmission of rarefied air, and arresting the spread of fire. It may be applied in a loose or natural form, as packing; woven with yarn or wire into sheets and strips; or felted in conjunction with wire netting, and put on similarly to ordinary felt. One ton will cover 1800 square feet of one inch thickness. It has been referred to, s.v. Pugging," par. 2217. advantages of this useful material are well described in the British Architect, April 6, 1888, on the reports of W. H. Stanger, F.C.S., with the experiments on its fire-resisting qualities.

66

The

2971d. Johnson's patent fireproof wire lathing, by which any partition or ceiling is rendered practically fireproof. Metal laths, on Edwards's patent, for use in the construction of fire-resisting ceilings, partitions, and doors. With his dove-tailed corrugated iron sheets (Hyatt's patent), for the same purpose, partitions are formed of Portland cement, concrete, and iron only two inches thick, the metal being completely protected. The "fibrous plaster" slabs of Wilkinson and Co., and of Hitchens, are intended for lining walls, ceilings, and floors for fireproof purposes, as noticed par. 22466. Fireproof flooring of various sorts are noticed par. 19031. et seq.

2971e. Wood can now be protected by various paints, for which reference can be made to the previous chapter, s v. PAINTING. Among them are, Asbestos fireproof paint, also water-resisting; colourless fireproof liquid "antiflame" for fireproofing fabrics; also a fireproof stain. Griffith's pyrodene fireproof paint is stated to render wood of all kinds and fabrics absolutely flame-proof by being simply soaked with it, and can be applied by anyone (par. 2273). It was supplied to the Manchester Exhibition, 1887. Sir Seymour Blaine's fireproof paint was used (1887) at Edward Terry's new theatre in the Strand. 2971 The flimsiest material, as canvas, hangings, dresses, gauzes, &c., can now, by some solution, or by chemical treatment, also be rendered incapable of bursting into flame. The chemicals now most commonly used for this purpose are alum, borax, phosphate of soda, sal-ammoniac, and tungstate of soda (a "fireproof starch'

"

prepared with it was first introduced by Donald Nicoll, ex-sheriff of London). This tungstate is considered the best, but as, if used singly, it is apt to become insoluble and to rub off, the addition of about 3 per cent. of phosphate of soda will diminish the risk. After the ordinary washing the goods should be immersed, before wringing and drying, in a solution containing 20 per cent. of tungstate, with a proportionate quantity of phosphate. Alum acts injuriously on the fabrics, especially if coloured. The others are cheap and commonly harmless.

2971g. The electric lighting system should be used in preference to the common gas system. It has been put up at the Savoy and the Criterion Theatres in London. Any gas burners should be properly protected, and no inflammable substance used.

2971h. An exit for smoke is advocated to be formed over the stage and over the proscenium. Firemen to be always in attendance with hose, capable of being attached to hydrants fixed at convenient points, the water being supplied from a tank, and also from the water mains. The supply of water from large reservoirs provided in the upper parts of the building is a precaution which should never be omitted, though late fires have shown they are never in order when required. Pipes may be laid on from them to those parts, such as the carpenters' room, scene room, and painting-room, where fires would be most likely to break out, and where if they did break out they would probably be most dangerous. The necessary fireman's arrangements, with tell-tale clocks, &c., must be duly provided.

2971. The "automatic sprinkler" is advocated by many, to be fixed over the flies and over the roof of the auditorium. They have been introduced at Mr. E. Terry's new theatre in the Strand. A hollow girder was advertised in 1861 by William Hood for holding water, which could be played on a fire without opening doors and windows to get at it. This was objected to for many reasons. This is now stated to have been "the ingenious invention of Jethro Robinson, who introduced the system to E. T. Smith, who used it at Astley's Theatre." Sinclair's "automatic sprinkler" has found favour lately in America, where it was adopted in various ways in warehouses. Insurance offices are said to have reduced the premiums in consequence of the use of the system. The water jets leave not a space outside the range of action. Once fixed they work of themselves when a temperature of 155 degrees arises where they are placed. All the apparatus is tested to a pressure of 500 lbs. to the square inch. Hannay's patent pneumatic principle is applied for charging the tubes with air as a protection against frost. Dick's Fire Queen extincteur is portable and self-acting; a gallon of its contents (water super-saturated with carbonic acid gas) is stated to be of more value than 30 gallons of water.

2971k. Mr. R. S. Ash, of Monaco, in a letter to the Times, August 1887, suggested that each theatre should have a fire-guard room, disconnected from the main building. From it a series of water pipes should pass to those parts specially menaced with fire. In response to an electric summons, the man in charge would be enabled to turn on one or more or all the pipes. One pipe should be specially prepared to saturate the curtain, or to act as a falling sheet of water if the curtain be up. People are rarely burnt to death in a fire, but are suffocated by the carbonic acid gas, the want of air, the smoke, or the intense heat. The pipes are not exposed to rust, it is stated, but unless they are used occasionally, it is feared they will rust. The guardian, it is supposed, will not experience the feelings of panic, and so will be prepared to obey the summons, and, "if the town supply of water is working satisfactorily, water would be delivered immediately where needed." The Asphaleia Company, on whose system the new Opera House in BudaPesth, and the Stadt Theatre at Hallé, have been rebuilt, have sent over a model of their system for exhibition; it was explained by Mr. Walter Emden, in his paper on Theatres and Fireproof Construction, read at the Society of Arts, January 25, 1888.

29711. A Modern Fireproof Theatre. Edward Terry's, in the Strand. Almost the whole of the structural portions are of incombustible materials, and the limited amount of woodwork has been coated with fireproof paint. Ironwork has been thoroughly cased in concrete; the flights of stairs are generally of concrete, the corridors and floors chiefly of mosaic and cement, the panelling is in fibrous plaster, the gallery seats are of concrete. The isolation of the auditorium from the stage is complete. The proscenium wall rises some 20 feet above the auditorium roof, and iron doors close the openings between the two parts of the house, while an asbestos drop curtain, stretched on a metal framework, fills the proscenium opening, and is to be used as an ordinary green curtain. Behind this curtain, besides the fireproof nature of the materials used, all the woodwork has been coated with the fireproof solution called Pyrodene, prepared by Messrs. Griffiths Brothers. A thoroughly efficient system of automatic sprinklers and the electric light have been introduced. In both the roofs direct exhausts have been formed so as to carry off the ordinary heat, and in case of fire to draw up and extract the smoke and gases generated. An efficient hydrant service is provided all over the house. Although the theatre is only estimated to accommodate about 800 persons, exits have been provided for an Casembly of 3,500 persons. Each part of the house has two or more exits, on two sides

of the building. The corridors and gangways generally average 3 feet 6 inches to 4 feet in width. Plain directions are painted over each opening out of the auditorium, which openings can be available for ordinary use. The doors are fitted with specially constructed lock, invented by Messrs. Chubb and Mr. Walter Emden, the architect, which can only be opened from the outside with a key, a push from within opening it without difficulty. (British Architect for October 21, 1887, p. 295.)

2971m. There are now two new theatres in London which are considered fairly fireproof, and the "Court" at Sloane Square may be a third, as regards inflammability. As to any advance in plans and sections, there have been two plans prominently put forward this year (1885). One fathered by Mr. Henry Irving and Alfred Darbyshire, architect, drawings of which were published in the Daily Telegraph of October 29, 1887. Another was brought forward by R. Nevill, architect, in an extensive paper read at the Royal Institute of British Architects, Dec. 9, 1887 (discussion); and reported in Proceedings of Jan. 26 following. Another is by R. M. Roe, architect, printed in the Proceed ings of Feb. 23. One by J. G. Buckle, architect, described in his work, and dedicated to Wilson Barrett. And lastly, by E. J. Tarver, architect, whose drawing is given in the British Architect for March 23. 44 Managers who contemplate new structures will have to form their own judgments and selections according to what may be the individual characteristics of the ground and neighbourhood. The Darbyshire plan is for a house detached all round, and with one gallery only. The Buckle plan is for a place where an underground house is needed. The Tarver plan is for a theatre above ground, adaptable to any site with one side open and the pit partly or wholly sunk.”

2971n. Many of the bad features of construction and arrangement in modern theatre building are stated to be often due to the proprietors or managers; the architect has not his entire way in the matter. The expenses of a theatre are very great, and the amount of the ground rent is an inducement to the site being made as small as possible. Any extraneous provision must necessarily entail cost and occupy space.

2972. Foreign theatres are not considered good examples for the study of an Englishman, as the habits of the nations are so different. Abroad, too, theatres usually stand in open squares, as at Hanover, Munich, Berlin, Dresden, and Darmstadt; not in back streets and crowded thoroughfares. The new Opera House in Paris is essentially a government establishment, and would be wholly useless in England, where a theatro is a private speculation. It is an exaggerated and badly proportioned copy of Munich theatre, with which it will not compare for compactness. It seats only 2,000 people. One of the best studies of a house on the balcon principle is that at Mayence, given in Fergusson's Handbook. The theatre at Darmstadt has been the type for those at Munich, Berlin, Moscow, and other places. But their passages and front arrangements are all bad for use in England; the idea being to collect the people into the entrance hall for show. The Victoria theatre at Berlin is a double theatre, one for winter, with another for summer. The theatre at Dresden is round, following the form of the interior. It has been lately suggested that the orchestra floor should be much deeper than is usual, so as to hide the movement of the instruments, which often spoils the illusion of the scene. In England the stage is always made on the incline; in Germany it is flat, which arrangement has become very general abroad; as in the double theatre at Berlin.

2972a. We have availed ourselves largely of papers read at the Royal Institute of British Architects, in which will be found further remarks upon the lighting, ventilation, and fittings required for these structures: On the Construction and Rebuilding of the Royal Italian Opera House, Covent Garden, by its architect, Mr. E. M. Barry, Feb. 6, 1860; and On the Construction of Theatres, by Mr. Warington Taylor, Dec. 19, 1864. The Builder, Building News, Architect, and British Architect journals, contain descriptions of most of the numerous theatres erected at home and abroad of late years, and to these publications the architect can resort for further views on the several important points touched upon by us herein. The Metropolitan Board of Works has issued regulations for the proper working of theatres for the safety of the public. The Home Secretary, it is stated (1887-88), is preparing a measure of reform in respect of theatre construction and management, in consequence of the late serious accidents."

SECT. II.

HOSPITALS.

2973. The buildings called hospitals are devoted to the reception of those persons who may be suffering from disease or accidental injuries. To this sort of building will this section be chiefly devoted. The same name has been given to a building for the reception of travellers; for the temporary accommodation of the destitute; for the maintenance and education of youth; and for the support of meritorious and indigent persons; the hospitals of Greenwich and Chelsea are good examples of establishments of this latter class; the former building, indeed, adds to its other excellencies a magnificence in the architecture worthy the object, though not so originally intended. The Hôtel des Invalides at Paris is another monument worthy of all praise; and indeed we scarcely know a quadrangle more imposing than the court of this edifice with its double tier of arcades. This hospital contains 7,000 veterans, and has attached to it a library of 20,000 volumes. The building erected for the alleviation of incurable diseases is properly an infirmary, and might be termed an almshouse.

2973a. To the honour of most of the nations, but few cities are now unprovided with one or more hospitals. In Milan there are so many of such buildings that it has been remarked that no one has need to pay for advice. The governments of France, Russia, Germany, and Turkey support these institutions; but in England, with the exception of Chelsea and Greenwich Hospitals, they depend upon the charity and foundations of benevolent individuals, as at Guy's, St. Thomas's, Bartholomew's, and the many other hospitals of London. There is great reluctance often on the part of the poor to enter an hospital; and on this account we do not think that money ill bestowed which tends to impart to it an agreeable and cheerful exterior. It is almost unnecessary to insist upon the thorough warming and ventilation of the edifice: no means should be omitted to render the place wholesome, and to prevent infection spreading from one part to another. The hospitals of a city should be seated in the least populous part, if the health of the city be consulted, or in each suburb; in which latter case the establishment would be nearer the quarter it is to serve, and more accessible in a short time in the case of accidents.

2974. The plans of some of the finest (but old) hospitals in Europe are given in Durard's Parallèle d'Edifices, 1801-9. Among them is that of Milan. It was commenced by Filarete in 1457, and is of course in a half-Gothic style. The men are placed to one side of a central cloistered court, which is 210 feet wide and 243 feet long in the clear, in a quadrangle 263 feet wide and 279 feet long, the cells being placed in the form of a cross of that size and 30 feet wide. In the intervals of the cross are four courtyards, on whose remaining sides are rooms for the assistants. On the opposite side of the cloistral court are placed the women. In the middle of the narrow side of the great cloister, opposite the entrance, is a church, which serves for the whole establishment. The cloisters of the large court and main body of the building are in two stories, so that they form galleries of communication. This edifice has served for a model to many others of an early date, but it is perhaps now considered good only for the pleasant promenades supplied by the corridors. The hospital of La Roquette, in the suburbs of Paris, designed by Poyet, was conceived on a magnificent scale, and was admirably planned. In this design each room, as well those on one side of the establishment for the males as those on the other side for the females, is appropriated to one particular disease. Each of these rooms is about 32 feet wide and 30 feet 6in. high. Behind the beds (which are in two rows in each room) runs a passage about 3 feet 4 in. wide, which removes them so much from the walls, and allows therefore of the necessary waiting on the invalids, and hides the wardrobe attached to each bed in the window recesses. Above these passages, which are about 6 feet 6 in. high, is arranged on each side a row of windows, by which ventilation as well as light is obtained. The ground floor contains the halls and offices necessary for such an establishment. The designs for this building were made about 1788, on the instructions drawn up, after several years' investigation, by a number of the most skilful and learned medical men of France, so as best to unite health and convenience in such an edifice. One of the conditions prescribed by their programme was the complete insulation of each apartment, as well as an easy communication by covered galleries round the building, and these were required to be of such extended dimensions that the air around should be unobstructed and circulating in every part with freedom, thus affording a wholesome promenade for the patients. The pran, however, was not continued.

2975. In France the hospital of St. André at Bordeaux, designed 1825-9 by J. Burgnet for 728 patients, was considered so good in its arrangements, that they were followed in the hôpital du Nord, afterwards Lariboisière, at Paris, designed 1846-54 by M. P. Gauthier for 606 beds. This plan of making a distinction between dormitories for the comparatively healthy, and wards for the sick, and abolishing all communications by passages and stairs

between wards, was the important feature of such establishments.

the model for those designing later works.

This hospital has been

2975a. The erection of the Victoria general military hospital at Netley, commenced in 1856 by Mr. Mennie, led to so much correspondence, investigation, and contradiction, that the student is best referred to the journals between 1856 and 1858, when a plan was finally adopted, which met with the approval of Miss Nightingale. It is said to have provided averages of 1,315, 1,406, and 1,800 cubic feet per patient. The communication of the wards with a general corridor and with the water-closets has been alleged as its chief fault, but its plan should be compared with others regarded as models at the time, to obtain a notion of the great stride in the planning of these buildings. The controversy continued with great advantage, as it produced plans of other hospitals considered as models on various points, up to 1862, when the military authorities issued their official plans for bospitals.

2975b. In 1865 the Société Chirurgicale de Paris issued the then recent exposition of scientific views with regard to the reconstruction of the hôtel-Dieu and of hospitals generally. It demanded a minimum of 538 square feet per bed as clear space of site outside the building; a maximum of two stories of wards, and of 200 to 300 beds in each hospital, considering that two small hospitals are preferable to one equal to their united capacity, because the periodical and regular vacancy of wards has been attended with good results. It considered that small wards of 15 to 20 beds are to be preferred to larger wards, and that the building should not only possess a day ward for convalescents, but another for their meals. The wards should be separated by landings and rooms for attendants They should be completely isolated blocks, all having the same aspect, and being exposed without any obstruction to the rays of the sun, to the effects of rain, and to the action of the wind; and they should be arranged in a single line or in parallel lines at intervals,of 260 feet or 330 feet, in order to obtain an efficient separation and a sufficient current of air. Finally it declares that no emanation from refuse or effluvium is to be tolerated; and that no abundance of artificial ventilation compensates for an insufficient natural ventilation. (The Builder journal, 1865, vol. xxiii. p. 170.)

2975c. It has been strongly recommended that ward space for each patient, approaching as near as circumstances allow to 2,000 cubic feet, with 144 square feet of floor, should be allowed for each bed: the ventilation to be obtained on the natural system; yet others are in favour of artificial ventilation with an ascending current; others for a descending current, which is adopted at the hôpital Lariboisière to the extent of 12 to 14 cubic feet per minute; at the hôpital Beaujon 24 to 36 feet, which was inefficient; and at Guy's hospital 40 to 60 feet, which was successful. Fireplaces alone are considered inefficient for the purpose.

2975d. The opinions expressed by the writers in the Builder journal during 1856-61, result in describing the correct plan as consisting of detached wards separated at least by lawns twice as wide as the height of the buildings, each ward being enclosed by four separate walls, and having windows on two sides that open from the ceiling with double sashes glazed; water-closets under a separate roof and divided from the wards by a corridor; the corridors continuous and close for 7 feet high, but open above with piers or columns; galleries, with seats in the gardens; comfort of nurses' rooms; and care as to finish of floors, &c. Besides the above publication and various parliamentary reports, the works by Husson, Études sur les Hôpitaux, 4to. Paris 1862, and by Jaccoud, Nouveau Dict. &c., vol. xvii., Ɛvo. Paris, 1873, both contain plans and valuable suggestions.

2975e. The new building of St. Thomas's Hospital in London, designed 1865-71 by Mr. Henry Currey, has been described by him in a lecture read at the Royal Institute of British Architects, January 23, 1871. It may be supposed to exhibit all that is requisite to be provided in an hospital of a metropolis, for the accommodation of 600 patients. It is arranged on the pavilion principle, now generally admitted to be the best for hospital purposes, and being placed in a row is specially suitable for the space of ground on which the edifice is erected. The corridor, of two stories, with a flat roof over, connecting the ends of each of the six pavilions, is 900 feet long; they are placed at the distance of 125 feet from each other, their axis being due east and west. The wards are 28 feet in width by 120 feet in length, and 15 feet high, in which are placed twenty-eight beds on each of five floors, giving a cubic capacity of 1,800 feet for each patient, the beds being placed 8 feet from centre to centre: small wards for two beds, contiguous thereto, separate special cases from the others. Adjoining the passage are placed the sisters' room, the ward kitchen, and a room for medical officers. The staircases are wide, and have a tread of 124 in., with a rise of 53 in. The well-holes are occupied by lifts and ventilating shafts. The water-closets, lavatories, and a bath-room are attached to each ward, and cut off from it by intercepting lobbies, with windows on both sides. There also are the foul linen and dust shoots communicating with the basement for external removal. Dormitories for the nurses and servants are placed in the attic story. The wards have flat ceilings, and the windows are carried up to it, to ensure a thorough change of air in the upper part. The

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