darbans, between the Huranghâta river and Bakarganj. But in a country so much intersected by watercourses as Lower Bengal, the road distance is about one-fourth greater than the direct distance, measured on the map. Thus, Jessore, which is 103 miles from Dhakka, and 77 miles from Calcutta by road, is only 82 and 62 miles distant from them by direct measurement. Accordingly, Hwen Thsang's distance of 150 miles by route will not be more than 120 miles by direct measurement on the map, which is only 20 miles in excess of the actual direct distance between Jessore and Tamluk. But as Tamluk is not approachable by land from the east, the pilgrim must have travelled at least one-half of the route by water, and his distance of 150 miles may be accepted as a fair estimate of the mixed route by land and water, which could not be actually measured. The name of Jasar, or "The Bridge," which has now supplanted the ancient name of Murali, shows the nature of the country, which is so completely intersected by deep watercourses, that before the construction of the present roads and bridges, the chief communication was by boats. Murali, or Jasar, is most probably the Gange regia of Ptolemy.

The country of Samatata is mentioned in the inscription of Samudra Gupta on the Allahabad pillar,* in which it is coupled with Kâmrup and Nepâl. It is mentioned also in the geographical list of Varâha Mihira, who lived in the beginning of the sixth century. According to Professor Lassen, the name signifies "bas pays littoral," which accords exactly with

*Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vi. 793; line 19 of inscription.
† Dr. Kern's Brihat-Sanhitâ,' xiv. 6.

Hwen Thsang's description of it as a low, moist country on the seashore. The inhabitants were short and black, as is the case at the present day with the people of Lower Bengal. From all these concurrent facts, it is certain that Samatata must be the Delta of the Ganges; and as the country is described as 3000 li, or 500 miles, in circuit, it must have included the whole of the present Delta, or triangular tract between the Bhagirathi river and the main stream of the Ganges.

Hwen Thsang mentions several countries lying to the east of Samatata, but as he gives only the general bearings and not the distances, it is not easy to identify the names. The first place is Shi-li-cha-ta-lo, which was situated in a valley near the great sea, to the north-east of Samatata.* This name is probably intended for Sri-Kshatra, or Sri-Kshetra, which M. Vivien de Saint-Martin has identified with Sri-hata, or Silhat, to the north-east of the Gangetic Delta. This town is situated in the valley of the Megna river, and although it is at a considerable distance from the sea, it seems most probable that it is the place intended by the pilgrim. The second country is Kia-mo-lang-kia, which was situated beyond the first, to the east, and near a great bay. This place may, I think, be identified with the district of Komilla, in Tipera, to the east of the Megna river, and at the head of the Bay of Bengal. The third country is To.lo.po.ti, which was to the east of the last. M. Julien renders the name by Dwáravati, but he makes no attempt to identify it. I would, however, suggest that it may be Talaingrati, that is, the country of the Talaings, or Pegu. Vati is Julien's 'Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 82.

the common termination of the names of the Burmese districts, as Hansavati, Dwayavati, Dinyavati, etc. The next name is I-shang-na-pu-lo, which was to the east of the last; then still further to the east was Moho-chen-po, and beyond that to the south-west was the kingdom of Yen-mo-na-cheu. The first of these names I take to be the country of the Shán tribes, or Laos; the second is probably Cochin China or Anam; and the third, which M. Stanislas Julien renders by Yamana-dwipa, is almost certainly Yava-dwipa, or Java.

3. TAMRALIPTI.

The kingdom of Tan-mo-li-ti, or Támralipti, is described as 1400 or 1500 li, about 250 miles, in circuit. It was situated on the seashore, and the surface of the country was low and wet. The capital was in a bay, and was accessible both by land and water. Tamralipti is the Sanskrit name of Tamluk, which is situated on a broad reach or bay of the Rupnârâyan river, 12 miles above its junction with the Hûghli. The district probably comprised the small but fertile tract of country lying to the westward of the Hûghli river, from Bardwân and Kalna on the north to the banks of the Kosai river on the south. From Támalitti, the Pâli form of the name, came the classical Tamalites.

4. KIRANA-SUVARNA.

Hwen Thsang places the capital of Kie-lo-na-su-fala-na, or Kirana Suvarna, at 700 li, or 117 miles, to the north-west of Tâmralipti, and the same distance to the north-east of Odra or Orissa.† As the capital of

* Julien's Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 83.
Ibid., iii. 84 and 88. See Map No. I.

Orissa in the seventh century was Jajipur on the Vaitarani river, the chief city of Kirana Suvarna must be looked for along the course of the Suvarna-riksha river, somewhere about the districts of Singhbhum and Barabhum. But this wild part of India is so little known that I am unable to suggest any particular place as the probable representative of the ancient capital of the country. Bara Bâzâr is the chief town in Barabhûm, and as its position corresponds very closely with that indicated by Hwen Thsang, it may be accepted as the approximate site of the capital in the seventh century. The territory was from 4400 to 4500 li, or from 733 to 750 miles, in circuit. It must, therefore, have comprised all the petty hillstates lying between Medinipur and Sirguja on the east and west, and between the sources of the Damuda and Vaitarani on the north and south.

This large tract of country is now occupied by a number of wild tribes who are best known by the collective name of Kolhán or Kols. But as the people themselves speak various dialects of two distinct languages, it would appear that they must belong to two different races, of whom the Munda and the Uraon may be taken as the typical representatives. According to Colonel Dalton,* "the Mundas first occupied the country and had been long settled there when the Uraons made their appearance;" and "though these races are now found in many parts of the country occupying the same villages, cultivating the same fields, celebrating together the same festivals and enjoying the same amusements, they are of totally distinct origin, and cannot intermarry without loss of caste." This

* Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1866, p. 154.

difference of race is confirmed by the decisive test of language, which shows that the Uraons are connected with the Tâmilian- races of the south, while the Mûndas belong to the hill men of the north, who are spread over the Himalayan and Vindhyan mountains from the Indus to the Bay of Bengal.

The various tribes connected with the Mundus are enumerated by Colonel Dalton* as the Kuars of Elichpur, the Korewas of Sirguja and Jaspur, the Kherias of Chutia Nâgpur, the Hor of Singhbhûm, the Bhumij of Mânbhûm and Dhalbhûm, and the Sántals of Mânbhûm, Singhbhûm, Katak, Hazâribâgh, and the Bhâgalpur hills. To these he adds the Juangas or Pattuns (leaf-clad) of Keunjar, etc. in the Katak tributary districts, who are isolated from "all other branches of the Munda family, and have not themselves the least notion of their connection with them; but their language shows that they are of the same race, and that their nearest kinsmen are the Kherias." The western branches of this race are the Bhils of Malwa and Kânhdes, and the Kolis of Gujarât. To the south of these tribes there is another division of the same race, who are called Suras or Suars. They occupy the northern end of the eastern Ghâts.

According to Colonel Dalton,† the Ho or Hor tribe of Singhbhûm is "the nucleus of the Munda nation." He calls it "the most compact, the purest, the most powerful and most interesting division of the whole race, and in appearance decidedly the best-looking.

*Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1866, 158. I write Sântal in preference to Sonthal, as I believe that the short o is only the peculiar Bengâli pronunciation of the long â.

Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1866, 168.