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Orissa in the seventh century was Jajipur on the Vaitarani river, the chief city of Kirana Suvarna must be looked for along the course of the Suvarna-riksha river, somewhere about the districts of Singhbhum and Barabhum. But this wild part of India is so little known that I am unable to suggest any particular place as the probable representative of the ancient capital of the country. Bara Bâzâr is the chief town in Barabhûm, and as its position corresponds very closely with that indicated by Hwen Thsang, it may be accepted as the approximate site of the capital in the seventh century. The territory was from 4400 to 4500 li, or from 733 to 750 miles, in circuit. It must, therefore, have comprised all the petty hillstates lying between Medinipur and Sirguja on the east and west, and between the sources of the Damuda and Vaitarani on the north and south.

This large tract of country is now occupied by a number of wild tribes who are best known by the collective name of Kolhán or Kols. But as the people themselves speak various dialects of two distinct languages, it would appear that they must belong to two different races, of whom the Munda and the Uraon may be taken as the typical representatives. According to Colonel Dalton,* "the Mundas first occupied the country and had been long settled there when the Uraons made their appearance;" and "though these races are now found in many parts of the country occupying the same villages, cultivating the same fields, celebrating together the same festivals and enjoying the same amusements, they are of totally distinct origin, and cannot intermarry without loss of caste." This

* Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1866, p. 154.

darbans, between the Huranghâta river and Bakarganj. But in a country so much intersected by watercourses as Lower Bengal, the road distance is about one-fourth greater than the direct distance, measured on the map. Thus, Jessore, which is 103 miles from Dhakka, and 77 miles from Calcutta by road, is only 82 and 62 miles distant from them by direct measurement. Accordingly, Hwen Thsang's distance of 150 miles by route will not be more than 120 miles by direct measurement on the map, which is only 20 miles in excess of the actual direct distance between Jessore and Tamluk. But as Tamluk is not approachable by land from the east, the pilgrim must have travelled at least one-half of the route by water, and his distance of 150 miles may be accepted as a fair estimate of the mixed route by land and water, which could not be actually measured. The name of Jasar, or "The Bridge," which has now supplanted the ancient name of Murali, shows the nature of the country, which is so completely intersected by deep watercourses, that before the construction of the present roads and bridges, the chief communication was by boats. Murali, or Jasar, is most probably the

Gange regia of Ptolemy.

The country of Samatata is mentioned in the inscription of Samudra Gupta on the Allahabad pillar,* in which it is coupled with Kâmrup and Nepâl. It is mentioned also in the geographical list of Varâha Mihira, who lived in the beginning of the sixth century. According to Professor Lassen, the name signifies "bas pays littoral," which accords exactly with

* Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vi. 793; line 19 of inscription.
+ Dr. Kern's Brihat-Sanhitâ,' xiv. 6.

Hwen Thsang's description of it as a low, moist country on the seashore. The inhabitants were short and black, as is the case at the present day with the people of Lower Bengal. From all these concurrent facts, it is certain that Samataṭța must be the Delta of the Ganges; and as the country is described as 3000 li, or 500 miles, in circuit, it must have included the whole of the present Delta, or triangular tract between the Bhagirathi river and the main stream of the Ganges.

Hwen Thsang mentions several countries lying to the east of Samatata, but as he gives only the general bearings and not the distances, it is not easy to identify the names. The first place is Shi-li-cha-ta-lo, which was situated in a valley near the great sea, to the north-east of Samatata.* This name is probably intended for Sri-Kshatra, or Sri-Kshetra, which M. Vivien de Saint-Martin has identified with Sri-hata, or Silhat, to the north-east of the Gangetic Delta. This town is situated in the valley of the Megna river, and although it is at a considerable distance from the sea, it seems most probable that it is the place intended by the pilgrim. The second country is Kia-mo-lang-kia, which was situated beyond the first, to the east, and near a great bay. This place may, I think, be identified with the district of Komilla, in Tipera, to the cast of the Megna river, and at the head of the Bay of Bengal. The third country is To.lo.po.ti, which was to the east of the last. M. Julien renders the name by Dwáravati, but he makes no attempt to identify it. I would, however, suggest that it may be Talaingrati, that is, the country of the Talaings, or Pegu. Vati is

* Julien's Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 82.

of the second and third centuries.* Ptolemy has Marundai as the name of a people to the north of the Ganges; but to the south of the river he places the Mandali, who may be the Mundas of Chutia Nâgpur, as their language and country are called Mundala. This is only a suggestion; but from the position of the Mandali they would seem to be the same people as the Monedes of Pliny, who with the Suari occupied the inland country to the south of the Palibothri.† As this is the exact position of the country of the Mundas and Suars, I think it quite certain that they must be the same race as the Monedes and Suari of Pliny.

In another passage Pliny mentions the Mandei and Malli as occupying the country between the Calinga and the Ganges. Amongst the Malli there was a mountain named Mallus, which would seem to be the same as the famous Mount Maleus of the Monedes and Suari. I think it highly probable that both names may be intended for the celebrated Mount Mandar, to the south of Bhagalpur, which is fabled to have been used by the gods and demons at the churning of the ocean. The Mandei I would identify with the inhabitants of the Mahanadi river, which is the Manada of Ptolemy. The Malli or Malei would therefore be the same people as Ptolemy's Mandala, who occupied the right bank of the Ganges to the south of Palibothra. Or they may be the people of the Rajmahal hills who are called Maler, which would appear to be

*Samudra Gupta, about A.D. 125; and a copper-plate dated in 214 or A.D. 292.

Hist. Nat. vi. c. 22. "Ab iis (Palibothris) in interiore situ Monedes et Suari, quorum mons Maleus," etc.

Hist. Nat. vi. c. 21. "Gentes: Calinga proximi mari, et supra Mandei Malli, quorum mons Mallus, finisque ejus tractus est Ganges."

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derived from the Kanarese Male and the Tâmil Malei, a "hill." It would therefore be equivalent to the Hindu Pahári or Parbatiya, a "hill man."

The Suari of Pliny are the Sabaræ of Ptolemy, and both may be identified with the aboriginal Savaras, or Suars, a wild race of wood-cutters, who live in the jangals without any fixed habitations. The country of the Savaras is said to begin where that of the Khonds ends, and to extend as far south as the Pennår river. But these Savaras or Suars of the eastern Ghâts are only a single branch of a widely-extended tribe, which is found in large numbers to the southwest of Gwalior and Narwar, and also in southern Rajputâna. The Savaris or Saharias of the Gwalior territory occupy the jangals on the Kota frontier to the westward of Narwar and Guna. They are found along the course of the Chambal river and its branches, where they meet the Rajputâna Surrias of Tod. The name is preserved in the Soræ Nomades of Ptolemy, who are placed to the south of the Kondali and Phyllite, or the Gonds and Bhils. They must therefore be the Suars or Savaras of central India, who occupy the wild hilly country about the sources of the Wain Gangâ, and who are also found along the valley of the Kistna river. As Kirana means a "man of mixed race," or barbarian, it seems probable that the name of Kirana Suvarna may be the original appellation of the barbarian Suvaras, or Suars.

In the beginning of the seventh century the king of this country was She-shang-kia, or Sasangka, who is famed as a great persecutor of Buddhism.* Hiouen Thsang's Life,' i. 112 and 235. Also Travels,' ii. 349, 422, and 468.

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