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The Rings of Saturn

Interesting results continue to be obtained with the spectroscope. Among these we must give a high place to the very delicate determinations of the revolutions of the rings of Saturn made by Keeler at Albany. These rings were long a marvel to astronomers, because it was clearly impossible that solid bodies of this kind could be maintained in equilibrium around the planet, or could even hold themselves together under the attraction of that body. It was therefore long ago surmised that they could be nothing but clouds of minute satellites or particles, which at SO great a distance presented the appearance of a continuous mass of matter. But no proof of this had ever been obtained, except that it was impossible to see how it could be anything else. Keeler, by spectroscopic observation, was able to show that the inner portion of the rings actually revolved around the planet at a more rapid rate than the outer portion. This observation was soon confirmed by other observers. It shows that the view that the rings are a cloud of satellites or particles, originally propounded by Cassini more than 200 years ago, and more recently developed by Maxwell and others, is the true one.

Comets

Although few comets of great brilliancy have been discovered during the twenty years in question, the patience of careful observers who are continually sweeping the sky with comet-seekers to detect any new visitor of this class, is frequently rewarded by success. Many of these bodies revolve in orbits which are apparently parabolic, so that they will not again return for many centuries. But an unusually large number of periodic comets have recently been discovered. It is now fairly well settled that these bodies become periodic through the accident of having at some time passed very near a large planet, nearly always Jupiter, which by its attraction so changes their parabolic orbits as to make them elliptic. In this case the comet becomes a permanent member of the system, until it again happens to pass very near Jupiter, when its orbit may be again changed. Continued observations have confirmed the

view that a comet thus brought into the system is short-lived, if we measure life by a celestial standard. It gradually grows fainter as it goes through its successive revolutions, and a considerable number have entirely disappeared. The tenuous masses of which they are composed are gradually scattered so as to be no longer visible. Their fate is much like that of a cloud of tobacco smoke in the air. If the orbit happens to intersect that of the earth, then at every passage of the earth through it we may have a meteoric shower caused by the atmosphere striking the invisible remains of the comet which are scattered around its orbit. Such showers occur in August and October, and sometimes in November.

Distance of the Sun

Among the most interesting astronomical events of the period in question were the two transits of Venus, which occurred on Dec. 7-8, 1874, and Dec. 5, 1882. The first was not visible either in Western Europe or on the American continent. The region of visibility included most of the Pacific Ocean, Asia, Australia, and the neighboring islands. Very elaborate and costly expeditions were organized by the leading countries of the world, especially the United States, Great Britain France and Germany, to make the necessary observations. As the phenomenon had to be observed in opposite hemispheres, the authorities of the United States selected stations on Kerguelen Island, Tasmania, New Zealand, and Chatham Island, in the southern hemisphere; and at Vladivostock, Nagasaki and Pekin, in the northern hemisphere. In the general average, the American expeditions were unfortunate as regarded weather. At every station the observations were seriously interfered with, either by clouds, or by haze and dust.

So far as the exact determination of the solar parallax is concerned, the results scarcely corresponded to the popular expectation. It was found that the observation of the moments of contact of the limb to Venus with that of the sun, on which the result had generally been made to depend, could not be made with the accuracy that had been anticipated. The best observers fre

quently differed by a considerable fraction of a minute in their estimates. Other methods were, however, more successful. The measures of the distance between the centre of the sun and that of Venus, made by the Germans with heliometers, and by Americans with photographic apparatus, appear to have been fairly reliable. But the fact is, that other methods of determining the solar parallax have been developed, so that less reliance is now placed on the observations in question.

These drawbacks did not prevent very elaborate preparations for the transit of 1882, which had the great advantage of being visible over the entire American continent, where the former one was quite invisible. It was supposed that with the aid of the experience derived in 1874 the methods of observation could be greatly improved. This was the case with the American photographic methods, but was not the case with the telescopic methods used by observers generally.

The most recent researches show that the problem of the exact value of the solar parallax, notwithstanding the progress that has been made, the elaboration of new methods, and the thorough discussion of old ones, is still in an unsatisfactory state. From the German heliometer measures made on the transits of Venus in 1874 and 1882, as just mentioned, Dr. Auwers has found a parallax of 8.88". In 1889, on the proposal of Gill, several observatories in both hemispheres engaged in a campaign to determine the solar parallax by heliometer observations on those asteroids which came near the earth during the times of opposition. The result was 8.80". This seemed to be confirmed by a number of other methods, which agreed remarkably with it. Up to the beginning of 1895, little doubt was felt among astronomers who paid attention to the subject that this figure was extremely near the truth. Then it was found that the observed motion of the orbit of Venus and of the ecliptic could not be reconciled with this value; indeed, that the only value which would bring everything into accordance was 8.76". Whereabouts, between the limit 8.76" and 8.80", the truth may lie, must be left to future investigation. Translated into miles, we may say that the mean distance of the earth from the

sun lies between 92,900,000 and 93,300,ooo miles. The mysterious motion of the perihelion of Mercury, which is greater than that which calculation shows to be produced by the action of all the planets, is not yet satisfactorily explained. Heretofore, it has generally been attributed to the attraction of some unknown bodies near the sun. But the perihelion of Mars is found to be probably affected with a similar motion, though smaller in amount. The latest suggestion on this subject is, that the law of gravitation may not vary exactly as the inverse square. A very slight deviation from this law would account for the observed anomalies. But many years of accurate observation, and a large amount of profound mathematical investigation, are requisite before further light can be thrown on the question.

The Sun and

its Constituent Elements

On the physical constitution of the sun it can

hardly be said that much new light has been thrown, though many facts have been collected. Observations of the solar corona are still made at every available total eclipse; the protuberances are from time to time observed with the spectroscope and the spots on the sun are observed or photographed at several great observatories. All this work confirms what was previously known, especially that the spottedness of the sun goes through a regular period of 11 years, during a part of which time the spots are large and numerous, while during the remainder of the period few or none may be visible. Quite recently, however, interesting researches have been made on the light of the sun which belong to chemistry and physics as much as to astronomy. Among these may be mentioned the discovery of a new element which has long been known to exist in the sun, being shown by a line in the spectrum, but was sought in vain on the earth. In 1895 this element was discovered on the earth, in a rare mineral, clevite, found in Norway. Curiously enough, this discovery was almost coincident with that of argon, the new element of the atmosphere, by Rayleigh and Ramsay. Among the great advances in the study of the sun's light must be named the photographic spectrum of the sun now being completed by Rowland, including his measures of a great number

of spectral lines, and the investigation of the spectrum of the heat-rays made by Langley at the Astrophysical Observatory in Washington. These researches may, in the future, be expected to throw more light on the question of the relation of climate to the heat of the sun.

The Stars

Passing outside the solar system to the region of the stars, we find a number of investigations of the motion of the solar system toward some point in, or not far from, the constellation Hercules. Owing to the motion of the stars themselves, however, there is not yet an exact agreement as to the amount or direction of this motion. In a general way we may say that if the spectator looks up to the heavens a little south of the zenith, on a summer evening, he may correctly imagine our earth and everything upon it as moving toward the constellations he there sees, with a speed of several

miles per second. The motion has been going on since the creation, and will probably continue for unknown ages.

of

The number of stars known to be variable has increased from 100 to more than 250. For the most part, it seems that the variability is due to a cycle of changes going on within the star itself, similar, perhaps, to those of spots on the sun. But in the case of Algol, a star long known to be variable, it is now almost certain that the changes consist in a partial eclipse of the star, produced by the revolution of a dark body, having nearly the same size as the star itself, revolving around it. The period of revolution is, of course, that between the partial eclipses, about 2 days and 21 hours. Other indications of dark bodies moving around stars and disturbing their motion have been brought to light. Among the most interesting is that of Procyon, a star of the first magnitude, which is affected by a periodic motion, showing that an invisible satellite is moving around it in a period of 20 years. But the most careful search with the great telescopes of the world, even that of the Lick Observatory, have failed to reveal the object. Chandler has found evidences of a similar revolution in the case of Algol, to which he attributes a change which has been noticed in the apparent period of the star. It is not,

however, considered that this motion is yet fully established.

The general outcome of these and other discoveries of the same kind, is, that many of the stars are probably accompanied by planets almost as large as themselves, and therefore very different from those of our system. A most powererful instrument for these discoveries is the spectroscope, by which the motions of the star to or from the earth are discerned.

The most accurate measures made on the parallax of stars by the aid of the heliometer, have failed to show any star nearer than the nearest already known,

Centauri. It is remarkable that no other stars, even of the first magnitude, are found to be so near as this. Most of those which have been measured have distances from five to ten times as great. Beyond the latter limit, the distance becomes unfathomable by any known method.

New Sun

But

Among the new stars which have been found the most noteworthy was that of 1892, which has since been called Nova Auriga, after the constellation in which it appeared. As in the case of other stars suddenly blazing out, the spectrum was found to be an extremely complicated one. It showed apparent displacements of the bright or dark lines, indicating rapid motion to or from the earth. the spectrum changed in a manner which was very bewildering to one who attempted to construct any certain and well-defined theory of the nature of the star. That there was an explosion or outburst of some sort seems beyond doubt. Whether this arose from a dark body striking the star, or from a process going on inside of the star itself, science cannot decide. We have already cited the evidence of numerous dark bodies moving around or in the neighborhood of stars, and it is not at all impossible that such a body might at last fall into its central sun. But it is equally true that there is no positive proof of this. All that can be said is, that the sudden blazing up of a star, previously very small, perhaps quite unknown, so that its brightness is increased scores, or even hundreds of times, is not a very uncommon phenomenon in the heavens, but the cause is yet unknown.

SIMON NEWCOMB.

THEOSOPHY: "THE WISDOM-RELIGION" A COMPOUND

OF MYSTICISM AND CHARLATANRY

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HERE is force as well as pungency in the old saying, When the gods go, the halfgods come. Though we owe to Eastern fable not a little of the beauty, and we might add the moral majesty, which surround as with a halo the character and ethical precepts of the founder of Buddhism, it would be mere hyperbole to invest with either attribute the person and work of any one of the triumvirate of religious enthusiasts who have undertaken in these latter days to set aside Christianity in favor of the doctrine and teaching of Sakya Muni. Oriental fervor may fitly hang on the meditative brow of Buddha the garland of saintliness; but not so fitly may Occidental enthusiasm pay homage to Gautama's latter-day disciples-the late Madame Blavatsky, Col. Olcott, and Mrs. Besant.

But we shall be told that it is easy to deride, not so easy to be either appreciative or just. Both we would be in estimating the claims of a new or revived revelation, even though we had deemed it, in its Gnostic or Buddhist origin, a vacuous gospel and a decadent faith. In matters of religious belief the attitude of toleration, if not of sympathy, is, we own, incumbent on all of us; but that we should be asked to be kind to every religious fad, and tolerant towards the charlatanry that arrogates to itself supernatural power, is a rather heavy exaction.

Mummeries and Rhapsody

The strain is the heavier upon one's good nature when one is seriously asked to accept mummeries and mysticism for earnest longings after the higher life, and to be pointed to the better way through a rechauffe of Gnosticism or a confused jumble of a more or less idealized Buddhism. To reject salvation through Theosophy may be to show ourselves unable to rise to the lofty intellectual plane on which its which its tenets can only be understood, and to prove ourselves incapable of appreciating the speculative sublimities of the Oriental mind. But Macaulay, who well knew the East, has put us on our guard against Eastern as well as Western rhapsody

and given this solace to the commonplace intellect: "It is a mistake," he says, "to suppose that subtle speculations touching the Divine attributes, the origin of evil, the necessity of human actions, the foundation of moral obligation, imply any high degree of intellectual culture. Such speculations are, on the contrary, in a peculiar manner the delight of intelligent children and of halfcivilized men." At all events, when one finds the faith good enough in which one has been brought up, while at the same time it commands the assent of both heart and reason, it is an effort to be gracious to those eager souls so smitten with unrest as to yearn with every break of day for an astral body and a new rẻligion. The cravings of these good but troublesome people recall Bishop Watson's ironical definition of Protestantism-"the right of saying theologically what you think, and of thinking what you please." This appears to be the mental attitude towards religion of not a few in our day, and the measure of the liberty taken when each audaciously invents for himself what he will believe.

Theosophy

comes in the Wake of Spiritualism

It would seem natural that Theosophy should come to us in the wake of Spiritualism, and that both should seek in the occultism of the Far East the stimulus of mystery necessary to the propagation of the one and the rehabilitation of the other. But here we must be careful not to wrong the new gospel, for Theosophists, we believe, are now anxious to disavow connection with Spiritualism, though "to explore the hidden mysteries of Nature and the latent powers of man" is one of the prominent aims of the brotherhood. The sibyl of the society we know, at any rate, dabbled largely in necromancy and spiritism, and in her work "Isis Unveiled," much space is given to divinations and to the laudation of the occult sciences of India and Egypt. Moreover, when Madame Blavatsky accompanied Colonel Olcott to India, her sojourn there was marked by such an exercise of so-called supernatural powers as to lead the Psychical Research Society of Eng

land to send out some of its trusted members to investigate the phenomena, an action fatal to the pretensions of the founder of Theosophy. Moncure Conway has since also told us how the high priestess of the new religion was laughing in her sleeve while she was sending reports of these alleged miraculous occurrences to her devotees in England.

It is disingenuous, therefore, in the adherents of Theosophy to disclaim kinship with Spiritualism. Is it not claimed for Madame Blavatsky that she spent thirty years of her life in the study of the occult sciences, and that in propagating her gospel she was the chosen medium of a mysterious brotherhood of adepts, called Mahatmas, who in Thibet had reached an incredible age through the practice of magical arts? Is not the society also disseminating translations of Hindoo works on astrology, chiromancy, divination, and magic, together with Colonel Olcott's lectures on "Theosophy, Religion and Occult Science," and Mr. Sinnett's more serious contributions to theosophical science, "The Occult World" and "Esoteric Buddhism?" Beyond all this, what are the practices Theosophy inculcates on its votaries which have earned for the "secret doctrine"-we shall not say always with discretionthe wrath of preachers and writers, who see in the movement the doings of a "Satanic propaganda," and one bitterly hostile to the Christian religion? We quote from one of these critics (G. H. Pember, M. A., author of "Theosophy, Buddhism, and the Signs of the End"). Says this writer:

A recent Critic "Still more strange, af

Nay,

on Theosophy ter our investigation (into that strange phase of thought-Theosophy-destructive as it is of faith and boldly avowing its Pagan origin), we see the men of this nineteenth century returning to the wisdom of long past ages, and modern thought sustaining its flight upon the wings of ancient lore. almost every characteristic of antiquity seems to be reappearing. Open intercourse with demons is being renewed on a vast scale in the very heart of Christendom, and even among the hitherto somewhat Sadducean Protestants; numerous circles are carrying on magical practices; attempts are being made to restore the influence of those ancient

mysteries which are said to have been always kept up by a few initiates; the old mesmeric healings are being performed; star-gazers and planet-rulers have greatly increased, while many amateur students are zealously assisting to re-establish the power of astrology over the human race; the use of the divining rod and countless other practices of primal and mediæval times are once more becoming common. And, impossible as it would have seemed a few years ago, all these 'superstitions' are floating back to us upon the tide of 'modern thought.' They come no longer veiled in mystery, nor claiming to be miraculous or Divine; but, in accordance with the spirit of the age, present themselves as the fruit of science, as an evidence of the progress of knowledge in regard to the laws of the visible and invisible worlds."

The view here presented of the religious phenomena of the time is certainly far from optimistic. This may be due, in part at least, to the writer's holding peculiar notions about prophecy and the near approach of Antichrist; but his reflections are not without warrant in presence of the widespread tendency of professedly Christian thought to deify Oriental philosophy and toy with theosophical speculation and other vaporous substitutes for religion.

Vaporous

substitutes for Religion

What there is in Theos

ophy to captivate the intellect is at all events due not to the late Madame Blavatsky, still less we should say to her fellow-priestess, Mrs. Besant, but to the "enlightened" Buddha. If there is any attraction to a sane intelligence in Theosophy it is due to the infusion with it of parts of the impressive code of Buddhist ethics. For the rest, there is little but puerilities, which have alienated the interest of many who might otherwise have been drawn to the venerable religion of India by Sir Edwin Arnold's fascinating poetic picture of it. It is significant that the great Oriental savants of Europe will have none of it. Professor Max Müller has told us that he regards Theosophy as nearly as bad as the Anglo-Jewish craze, and adds that "Esoteric Buddhism has no sweet odor in the nostrils of Sanskrit and Pali scholars. They try to keep aloof from it and to avoid all controversy with its prophets and prophetesses."

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