HE idea of monotheism and the principle of purity might seem hardly enough to be the chief results of so systematic a discipline as that of the Hebrews. But, in reality, they are the cardinal points in education. The idea of monotheism (the doctrine that there is but one God) outtops all other ideas in dignity and worth. The spirituality of God involves in it the supremacy of conscience, the immortality of the soul, the final judgment of the human race. For we know the other world, and can only know it, by analogy drawn from our own experience. With what, then, shall we compare God? With the spiritual or the fleshly part of our nature? On the answer depends the whole bent of our religion and of our morality.

The people whose extraordinary toughness of nature has enabled it to outlive Egyptian Pharaohs, and Assyrian kings, and Roman Cæsars, and Mussulman caliphs, was well matched against a power of evil, which, undermining domestic virtue, has battled with the human spirit ever since the creation, and has inflicted and may yet inflict, more deadly blows than any other power we know of. Such was the training of the Hebrews.

To the chief elements of civilization Rome contributed her admirable spirit of order and organization. To her had been given the genius of government. She had been trained to it by centuries of difficult and tumultuous history. Storms which would have rent asunder the framework of any other polity only practiced her in the art of controlling popular passions; and when she began to aim consciously at the Empire of the world, she had already learned her lesson. She had learned it as the Hebrews had learned theirs, by an enforced obedience to her own system. In no nation of antiquity had civil officers the same unquestioned authority during their term of office, or laws or judicial rules the

*An excerpt from the article on "The Education of the World," contributed to the now

famous "Essays and Reviews," by the present Archbishop of Canterbury, when its writer (Rev. Dr. Temple) was headmaster of Rugby School. -ED. S.C.

same reverence. That which religion was to the Jew, including even the formalism which encrusted and fettered it, law was to the Roman. Justinian's laws have penetrated into all modern legislation, and almost all improvements bring us nearer to his code. Much of the spirit of modern politics came from Greece; much from the woods of Germany. But the skeleton

and framework is almost entirely Roman. And it is not this framework only that comes from Rome. The moral sentiments and the moral force which lie at the back of all political life, and are absolutely indispensable to its vigor, are, in great measure, Roman, too. It is true that the life and power of all morality whatever will always be drawn from the New Testament; yet it is in the history of Rome rather than in the Bible that we find our models and precepts of political duty, and especially of the duty of patriotism. St. Paul bids us follow whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of good report. But, except through such general appeals to natural feeling, it would be difficult to prove from the New Testament that cowardice was not only disgraceful but sinful, and that love of our country. was an exalted duty of humanity. That lesson our consciences have learnt from the teaching of ancient Rome.

To Greece was entrusted the cultivation of the reason and the taste. Her gift to mankind has been science and art. There was little in her temper of the spirit of reverence. Her morality and her religion did not spring from the conscience. Her gods were the creatures of imagination, not of spiritual need.

highest idea was not holiness, as with the Hebrews, nor law, as with the Romans, but beauty. Even Aristotle, who assuredly gave way to mere sentiment as little as any Greek that ever lived, placed the Beautiful at the head of his moral system, not the Right nor the Holy. Greece, in fact, was not looking at another world, nor even striving to organize the present, but rather aiming at the development of free nature. The highest possible cultivation of the individual, the most finished perfection of the natural

faculties, was her dream. It is true that the philosophers are ever talking of subordinating the individual to the state. But in reality there never has been a period in history nor a country in the world, in which the peculiarities of individual temper and character had freer play. This is not the best atmosphere for political action; but it is better than any other for giving vigor and life to the impulses of genius, and for cultivating those faculties, the reason and taste, in which the highest genius can be shown.

To the Greeks we owe the logic which has ruled the minds of all thinkers since Aristotle. All our natural and physical sciences really begin with the Greeks, and, indeed, would have been impossible had not Greece taught men how to reason. To the Greeks we owe the corrective which conscience needs to borrow from nature. Conscience, startled at the awful truths which she has to reveal, too often threatens to withdraw the soul into gloomy and perverse asceticism; then is needed the beauty which Greece taught us to admire, to show us another aspect of the Divine Attributes.

The discipline of Asia was the neverending succession of conquering dynasties, following in each other's track like waves, an ever-moving yet never-advancing ocean. Cycles of change were successively passing over her, and yet at the end of every cycle she stood where she had stood before, and nearly where she stands now. The growth of Europe has dwarfed her in comparison, and she is paralyzed in presence of a gigantic strength younger but mightier than her own. But in herself she is no weaker than she ever was. The monarchs who once led Assyrian, or Babylonian, or Persian armies across half the world, impose on us by the vast extent and rapidity of their conquests; but these conquests had, in reality, no substance, no inherent strength. This perpetual baffling of all earthly progress taught Asia to seek her inspiration in rest. She learned to fix her thoughts upon another world, and was disciplined to check, by her silent protest, the over-earthly, over-practical tendency of the Western nations. She was ever the one to refuse to measure Heaven by the standard of earth. Her teeming imagination filled the church with thoughts "undreamt of in our philosophy." She had been the instru

ment to teach the Hebrews the doctrine of the Immortality of the Soul; for whatever may be said of the early notions on this subject, it is unquestionable that in Babylon the Jews first attained the clearness and certainty in regard to it which we find in the teaching of the Pharisees. The Western nations are always tempted to make reason not only supreme, but despotic, and dislike to acknowledge mysteries even in religion. They are inclined to limit all doctrines within the confines of spiritual utility, and to refuse to listen to dim voices and whispers from within, those instincts of doubt, and reverence, and awe, which yet are, in their place and degree, messages from the depths of our being. Asia supplies the corrective by perpetually leaning to the mysterious. When left to herself, she settles down to baseless dreams, and sometimes to monstrous and revolting fictions. But her influence has never ceased to be felt, and could not be lost without serious damage.

Thus the Hebrew may be said to have disciplined the human conscience, Rome the human will, Greece the reason and taste, Asia the spiritual imagination. Other races that have since been admitted into Christendom also did their parts. And others may yet have something to contribute; for though the time of discipline is childhood, yet there is no precise line beyond which all discipline ceases. Even the gray-haired man has yet some small capacity for learning like a child; and even in the maturity of the world the early modes of teaching may yet find a place.

FREDERICK TEMPLE, D.D.

A new

These are days of popular manuals. series entitled, "Masters of Medicine," has just appeared in London, under the supervision of Dr. Ernest Hart, editor of the "British Medical Journal, ," the purpose of which is to record the lives, the difficulties, and the triumphs of those who have done most for the advancement of medical science in modern times. The first volume of the series to appear deals with "John Hunter, Man of Science and Surgeon," and has been written by Mr. Stephen Paget, with an introduction by Sir James Paget, the eminent surgeon. John Hunter is the father of modern scientific surgery. He created pathology, or the science upon which all surgery is based, for it deals with the principles of disease. The series is intended for the general public as well as for the medical profession. The next volume will be on Harvey, the discoverer of the circulation of the blood.

FOREIGN MISSIONS

HE literature of missionary enterprise has, in Dr. James S. Dennis's Christian Missions and Social Progress" (New York and Chicago: Fleming H. Revell Co.), received a unique contribution of high interest and extreme value. Nowhere else have we found so thorough a marshalling of facts or so philosophic a handling of the interesting subject. The author, who was for some time attached to the Syrian outpost of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions at Beirut, comes to his work admirably equipped for the task of writing, from the standpoint of the sociologist, an account of Christian missions in foreign lands, of portraying the debased social life of heathenism, with all its degrading and corrupting rites and customs, and of setting forth, in emphatic terms, the well-attested power and influence of Christianity in its uplifting and regenerating work.

The basis of the book is a course of lectures, since greatly expanded, delivered by the author at Princeton and other theological seminaries. The lectures attracted great attention, owing to the masterly treatment of the subject, in its sociological aspects, in Dr. Dennis's hands; to the lecturer's elaborate review of the service rendered by missions in the spheres of education, literature, philanthropy, social reform, and national development; and to his instructive setting forth of the influence of the great ethnic religions of the world upon the higher life of society, and the impressive contrast presented in the power of Christianity to purify and elevate the moral life of the nations. The lectures, as originally delivered, were but the framework of what their author has, with infinite and manifest labor, now presented in a greatly developed and enriched form. A glance at the scheme of the book will suffice to show how thoroughly the author has studied his subject, how voluminous, though highly important, are his gleanings of facts from foreign fields, and how interesting and telling are the deductions drawn from his observation, research, and inquiry, in the varied missionary fields which he opens so instruct

ively to view. So rich is his grouping of facts touching all phases of his subject, and scientific his method of classifying and emphasizing the meaning and trend of them, and of bringing out their sociological bearing, that the author may well be termed the Herbert Spencer of Missions.

The chief feature of Dr. Dennis's work is, as we have hinted, its presentation of the subject from the view-point of the sociologist. The term sociology is, we believe, newly applied in relation to missions, and it is well to understand just what is meant by it. In using it, the author simply adheres to what has become its accepted philosophic meaning, as the science of social phenomena, by which facts bearing upon social life in all its aspects are investigated, correlated and recorded. We can see Dr. Dennis's meaning by referring to the opening chapter.

The work deals not only with the results of matter gathered and facts ascertained from missionaries in the field, but with the grouping of these facts, and the enforcement of the lessons to be deduced from them, with suggestive remedies for the evils treated of. The scope of the latter will be seen from the chapter devoted to the "Social Evils of the NonChristian World," which includes those that result not only from the vices, ignorance, and brutality of heathenism, but those that are produced from the tyranny of custom, idolatry and superstition, and from the low commercial standards, or defective industrial methods, for which even civilization is responsible in its contact with Oriental countries. The chapter which follows the latter on "Ineffectual Remedies and the Causes of Their Failure," is obviously of much practical interest, and shows that, according to the author, social regeneration is not to be looked for in education merely, or in any attempt at civilizing benighted races before the work of Christianization has been accomplished. The pictorial embellishments of the work add greatly to its interest for the lay reader and to the graphic realization of what the missions are doing in the contact of its many and zealous workers with barbarism.

G. M. A.

We have, unfortunately, not much evidence of the weight of the brain in the uncultivated and savage races. The weighings made by Tiedemann, Virchow, Reid, and Peacock give the mean of the brain in the negro as between 44 and 45 oz., a weight which corresponds with that of European women, whilst in the negress the mean weight is less than in the female sex in Europeans. In two Bush girls from South Africa,-representatives of a dwarf race, the brain is said to have been 34 and 38 oz., respectively. From the weighings which have been published of the brains of the orang and chimpanzee, it would seem that the brainweight in these apes ranges from 11 to 15 oz. (312 to 426 grm.), and the brainweight appears to be much about the same in the gorilla. These figures are greatly below those of the human brain, even in so degraded a people as the dwarf Bush race of South Africa. They closely approximate to the weight of newly-born male infants, in whom, as has just been stated, the average weight was 11.67 oz. For the purposes of ape life, the low brain-weight is sufficient to enable the animal to perform every function of which it is capable. Its muscular and nervous systems are so accurately co-ordinated that it can move freely from tree to tree, and swing itself to and fro; it can seize and retain objects with great precision and can search for and procure its food. In all these respects it presents a striking contrast to the infant, having an almost similar brain-weight, which lies helpless on its mother's knee.

Capacity of the Cranium

Another line of evidence of which we may avail ourselves, in order to test the relative size of the brain in the different races of men and in the large apes, is to be obtained by determining the internal capacity of the cranium. Examples of the brains of different races (except Europeans) are few in number in our collections, but the crania are often well represented, the volume of the cavity in which the brain is lodged can be obtained from them, and an approximate conception of the size and weight of the brain can be estimated. In pursuing this line of inquiry, account has, of course, to be taken of the space occupied by the membranes investing the

cerebro-spinal fluid. A small deduction from the total capacity will have to be made on their behalf.

There is a general consensus of opinion amongst craniologists that the mean internal capacity of the cranium in adult male Europeans is about 1,500 c.c. (91.5 cub. in.). The mean capacity of the cranium of fifty Scotsmen that I have measured by a method which I described some years ago, was 1,493 c.c. (91.1 cub. in.). The most capacious of these skull's was 1,770 c.c. and the one with the smallest capacity was 1,240 c.c. Thus, in a highly civilized and admittedly intellectual people, the range in the volume of brain space amongst the men was as much as 530 c.c. in the specimens under examination, none of which was known or believed to be the skull of an idiot or imbecile, whilst some were known to be the crania of persons of education and position. In twenty-three Scotswomen the mean capacity was 1,325 c.c., and the range of variation was from a maximum 1,625 to a minimum 1,100 c.c. viz., 525 c.c.

Again, I have taken the capacity by the same method of a number of crania of the Australian aborigines, a race incapable apparently of intellectual improvement beyond their present low state of development. In thirty-nine men the mean capacity was only 1,280 c.c. (78.1 cub. in.). The maximum capacity was 1,514 c.c., the minimum 1,044 c.c. The range of variation was 470 c.c. In twenty-four women the mean capacity was 1,115.6 c.c., the maximum being 1,240 and the minimum 930, and the range variation was 310 C.C. It is noticeable that in this series of sixty-three Australian skulls, all of which are in the Anatomical Museum of the University of Edinburgh, eight men had a smaller capacity than 1,200 c.c. and only four were above 1,400 C.C. Of the women's skulls ten were below 1,100 c.c., four of which were between 900 and 1,000 c.c., and only three were 1,200 c.c. and upwards.

Space does not admit of further detail on the cranial capacities of other races of men. Sufficient has been said to show the wide range which prevails, from the maximum in the Europeans to the minimum in the Australians, and that amongst persons presumably sane and capable of discharging their duties in