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man, introduced into England after the Conquest, and occurring in that language, as remains of the original Celtic of Gaul. 5th. Those that have been retained from the original Celtic of the island, and which form genuine constituents of our language. These latter are subdivided into three classes-1st, Proper geographical names-as Thames, Kent. 2nd. Common names retained in the provincial dialects of Enggland, but not in the current language-as givethall, meaning household stuff, and gwlanen, flannel. 3rd. Common names retained in the present language—as basgawd, basket; berfa, barrow; botiom, button; bian, bran; crochan, crockery; crog, crook.

Another large and very important element of modern English is the Latin, introduced at various times, ranging from the first invasion of the Romans to the present day. Of the first period, the few words that remain may be called Latin of the Celtic period, and naturally relate to military affairs. To such belong the words street, from the Latin stratus, laid down; the terminations, coln from colonia, a colony, as in the word Lincoln; and cest, or chester, from castra, camps, as in Chester, Gloucester, &c.

To the second period belong such words as were introduced into England subsequently to the conversion of the natives to Christianity. They relate chiefly to ecclesiastical affairs. Of these are the words porch, from porticus; pall, from pallium; chalice, from calix; candle, from candela, cloister, from claustrum; and such like.

The words of the third period were introduced between the battle of Hastings and the revival of literature. Such words owe their introduction to the cloister, the universities, and, to some extent, to the courts of law.

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The words in the English language, derived from Latin of the fourth period, were introduced between the revival of literature and the present time. They owe their origin to the productions of learned men, and form a large component part of our modern English.

Besides the Celtic and Latin elements of the language, we find the Danish to a very limited extent, and the Anglo-Norman more extensively supplying many words. Of these latter are terms relating to the feudal system, to war and chivalry, and many to law affairs-as the words, duke, court, baron, villain, warrant, esquire, challenge, &c., &c.

The chief element, however, of modern

English is the Anglo-Saxon, which may be called the mother-tongue, in contradistinction to all the foregoing, which may be termed the foreign elements.

In the dictionaries of the English language, as it is now spoken, there are calculated to be about 38,000 words; and of these about 23,000 are reported to be traceable directly to a Saxon original; that is by a little less than the five-eighths of the whole number.

Another standard whereby to try the comparative strength of the seven elements has been found in the analysis of the authorized version of the Scriptures, and of fourteen. popular writers in prose and verse, of whom the poet Spenser is the first, and Samuel Johnson the last.

Of the whole number of words examined, those that are not of Saxon origin make less than one-fifth, which would leave more than four-fifths as native- that is, derived from the mother-tongue, or Anglo-Saxon. "Let the present language of England," says Professor Latham, consist of 40,000 words. Of these, let 30,000 be AngloSaxon, 5,000 Anglo-Norman, 100 Celtic, 10 Latin of the first, 20 Latin of the second, and 30 Latin of the third period, 50 Scandinavian, and the rest miscellaneous; and we have the language considered according to the historical origin of the words that compose it."

The conquest of Britain by the Romans did not effect any change in the language thereof; the primitive tongue of the British Isles obtaining universally throughout them during their whole tenure of the country. Even in the present day, dialects of that tongue-the oldest of all European tongues

-the tongue which, whatever name it may be called by, according to the various and vague theories respecting it, whether Japhetan, Cimmerian, Pelasgic, or Celtic, is accounted generally to have been the earliest brought from the East, and to have been, therefore, the vehicle of the first knowledge that dawned upon Europe. Dialects of that tongue are spoken in several parts of England. Welsh, for instance, is spoken in Wales; Manks in the Isle of Man; Scotch Gaelic in the Highlands of Scotland; and Irish Gaelic in Ireland.

The removal of the seat of the Roman Empire to Constantinople led, as one cause amongst many, to its final dismemberment and downfall. The necessities of the state, and the incessant conflicts with the northern barbarians, rendered it impossible for the Romans to maintain such a military force in Britain as was required to keep the

Their leader was Ella. They established the kingdom of South Saxons; so that the county of Sussex was the second district where the original British was superseded by the mother-tongue of the present English introduced from Germany.

The third settlement of invaders from Germany occurred a D. 495. They landed, under their leader, Cerdic, on the coast of Hampshire, and, like the last-named invaders, were called Saxons. They established the kingdom of the West Saxons; so that the county of Hants was the third district where the original British was superseded by the mother-tongue of modern English.

The fourth settlement of the Germanic tribes was effected about A.D. 530, in Essex, The fifth, the precise date not being authenticated, was effected by the Angles in Norfolk and Suffolk.

natives in subjection; and in A.D. 420, the Emperor Honorius formally released them from their allegiance, which they had professed for about 400 years. No longer overawed by the presence of the Roman legions, the Britons refused to submit to the authority of the provincial governors. The native chieftains began to quarrel amongst themselves for supremacy, the Picts and Scots poured in their devastating hordes from the north, and the whole country was involved in anarchy and bloodshed. In this state of things, Vortigern, one of the native chieftains, called in the aid of two brothers, Hengist and Horsa, Saxon freebooters, who had previously infested the eastern coast; and thus was laid the commencement of the first Germanic settlement in the island, about A.D. 450. Ebbsfleet, in the Isle of Thanet, is the spot where they landed, and the name they were called by The sixth settlement was accomplished was that of Jutes. Six years after they by invaders from Northern Germany in landed they had established the kingdom of A.D. 547. The south-eastern counties of Kent; so that the county of Kent was the Scotland, between the rivers Tweed and first district where the original British was Forth, were the districts whereon they superseded by the mother-tongue of the landed; and, accordingly, in these parts present English introduced from Germany. respectively, in one after the other, was the For centuries afterwards, Germanic original British language superseded by the tribes continued incessantly to take up mother-tongue of our present English, their abode in the island; the ancient which is thus proved to be essentially a Britons and their language retiring gra- branch of the Teutonic,-the language which dually before them to the west. The ac- was spoken by the inhabitants of Central counts that have come down to us, how- Europe immediately before the dawn of ever, relative to the settlers, and the history, and which constitutes the foundaincidents that arose out of their invasion of tion of the modern German, Danish, and Britain, do not belong to authentic but tra- Dutch. Introduced by the Anglo-Saxons ditional history; our earliest record thereof, in the fifth century, it gradually spread, that by Bede, having been written 300 years with the people who spoke it, over nearly after the landing of the aforesaid Hengist the whole of England, the Celtic shrinking and Horsa. before it into Wales, Cornwall, Ireland, and the north of Scotland, in like manner as the Indian tongues are now retiring before the advance of the British settlers in North America.

"About the year of Grace," wrote he, "445-446, the British inhabitants of England, deserted by their Roman masters, who had enervated while they protected them, and exposed to the ravages of Picts and Scots from the extreme and barbarous portions of the island, called in the aid of heathen Saxons from the continent of Europe. The strangers faithfully performed their task, and chastised the northern invaders; then, in scorn of the weakness of their employers, subjected them in turn to the yoke, and, after various vicissitudes of fortune, established their own power on the ruins of Roman and British civilization."

In A.D. 477, invaders from Northern Germany made the second permanent settlement in Britain. The coast of Sussex was the spot whereon they landed. The particular name by which these tribes called themselves was that of Saxons.

There is evidence, however, that the original British language was not so speedily extinguished by the introduction of the Anglo-Saxon as was at first generally sup posed. The former, of course, experienced the degradation which the aboriginal inhabitants themselves experienced at the hands of their conquerors; but being the language of the people, and having numbers on its side, it necessarily held its ground for a considerable time, and only gave way step by step, or retired to other parts of the island, according as the invaders gained on or amalgamated themselves with the natives.

The Anglo-Saxon tongue itself was not cherished so enthusiastically at first by the

ati amongst the Anglo-Saxons as to re its universal and instantaneous ad. From the period of its first introion, it underwent little or no change nearly five centuries; the chief acceswhich it received being Latin terms duced by Christian missionaries. wn to the middle of the seventh cenfew comparatively of the educated rs composed in their own language, and was regarded as exclusively adapted exigencies of literary composition. (To be concluded in our next.)

RACTICAL LESSON ON HOSPITALITY.

Indian of the Virginian States, when unting, followed the game into the ican possessions. The weather was nd rainy. He stopped at a planter's, he begged for shelter, which was reHungry and thirsty, he besought a of bread and a glass of water. But to request "No" was the answer; to i was added, "Get away, Indian dog! is nothing here for thee." Several afterwards this same planter had-no by the hand of Providence-lost his in the woods, and, coming up to the of a savage, in his turn begged for tality, which was immediately granted a very good grace. On inquiring the ace from where he was to the white s possessions, the Indian who had redhim so cordially replied, "You are ar from home to think of returning to-night; remain, therefore, here, and rrow morning I will myself guide you to your house." The American grateaccepted this offer, and spent the t with the Indian, who seemed to take ure in showing him every attention; the next day, according to his promise, nducted the planter to his habitation. n about to take leave, the Red-skin ed and faced his guest, bidding him at him, and try to remember where he seen him before. The unfortunate te man instantly recognised the hunter had so barbarously treated a few years re. He was seized with inexpressible or at the idea of the fate that he was vinced awaited him. He attempted to ak, but could not find words to express er his gratitude or shame. But the lian, mildly checking his endeavour, tly and simply said, "Another time, en a poor Indian, cold, hungry, and rsty, comes to thy door to ask a shelter, rust of bread, and a drop of water, say

not to him, 'Begone, Indian dog! there is nothing here for thee."" After giving this lesson of charity, the Red-skin disappeared in the forest, leaving the white man to his conscience.

WHY SHOULD WE MAKE HOLIDAY TRIPS?

Now, what is there in change of air or is often said, that till railroads gave the scene that does us all so much good? It facility for moving, people could do without all this, and stayed at home and enjoyed themselves. People did do without it, that is certain; but that they would have been better for it, lived longer, and led happier lives, is no less certain. It may be, too, that they did not require it quite so much as we do at the present day; for taking things more slowly, more easily some would say, their minds, kept at a lower pressure, did not, probably, require so imperatively the periodical "turning out to grass." Read the accounts of the easy way in which the old road travellers took matters, dined on their journey and smoked their pipes afterwards; or how the old merchants or tradesmen locked up counting-house and shop-they do so now in some places-and walked off to dinner. How different is it now,-how prevalent is that condition, especially in large towns, which Dr. James Johnson calls "Wear and Tear,"-a condition between sickness and health, not curable by physic, and which he compares to a ship still seaworthy, but with rigging and seams requiring overhauling, caulking, &c.! How common, too, is the etiolation or blanching caused by town life, and which the abovequoted author traces as indicative, in the higher classes, of "no avocation". in the middle and lower classes, of "unhealthy avocation." No avocation! unhealthy avocation! the one with its ennui, its indulgences, and its excitements-the other with its overwork and anxieties, and its excitements, are, one or other of them, wearing, tearing, blanching most of us, till it becomes, at some period or other of our career, a question of hopeless bad health, or hypochondriacism, or change of air and scene: we might cite it as one of those beneficent provisionsbalances, if we may so call them-of Providence, by which those very powers of mechanism so productive of increased wear and tear in life—at least in business lifebring us also the remedy in the increased facilities for locomotion.-Health Resorts of Britain, and how to Profit by them. By SPENCER THOMSON, M.D.

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NOTES AND QUERIES FOR
NATURALISTS.

NOTES.

THE FRIGATE BIRD.

THIS is an aquatic bird, nearly allied to the cormorant, from which it differs in having a orked tail and very short feet, the membranes of which are deeply notched, an extraordinary spread of wing, and a beak both mendibles of which are curved at the top. Its scientific name is Tachypedts. Captain Wraxall, in his very interesting work, "Life in the Sea," gives the following account of its habits:

ley, in his annual for 1852, states the follow ing:

"During the destructive war, which for a space of thirty years desolated all Germany, till it was terminated by the peace of Westphalia, the car riers who conducted the inland traffic of the country used to unite themselves into large com. panies, for their mutual defence, in order that they might travel with greater security against the numerous marauding parties which infested every part of the empire. One of these carriers had a horse which was of an extremely vicious dis position, and greatly addicted to biting and kick ing, from which even his master was not always secure, and which embroiled him with his fellow travellers. They were one evening attacked in a ravine by three hungry wolves, which, after a long contest, they found they should hardly be able to compel to quit them without allowing them some prey. It was therefore agreed among themselves that they should pay the owner of the vicious horse the price of that animal, and make a s crifice of him to the wolves. The bargain was soon concluded, and the horse having been taken out of harness and turned loose, the wolves at tacked him immediately. He, however, defended himself courageously with his teeth and heels, retreating at the same time into the interior of the forest, while the carriers availed themselves of the opportunity of hastening to a place of safety, not a little rejoiced at getting rid of s troublesome a companion, so much to their ad vantage. As they were sitting at their supper st the inn where they usually stopped for the night, a knocking was heard at the house-door, which, on being opened by the maid, a horse pushed in his head; the girl, frightened, shrieked out, and ANSWERS TO QUERIES. called to the carriers, who, coming to the door, HORSE versus WOLF (pp. 27, 85).-Peter Par- were no less surprised than rejoiced to see the

"The frigate bird soars over the tropical waters. In proportion to the bird's height (three feet) its wings surpass even those of the condor in length; for, when extended, they measure fourteen feet from one tip to the other. It flies in the highest regions of the air, so that it can be hardly seen with the naked eye, and swoops like an arrow on the luckless fish, which have been only that moment driven from the water by the Bonita. It is often met with 1,200 miles from land, and yet is said to return every night to its solitary rock-nest. Still, Quoy and Gaymard assert (Voyage de l'Uranie), that this bird is rarely found far from the coast; and when it is so, it is probable that there is an unknown rock somewhere in the vicinity. Large flocks of frigate birds brood on the Paumotu group, where Captain Wilkes found several trees covered with their nests. When the old birds flew away, they swelled up their red crops to the size of a child's head, so that they seemed to carry a bladder of blood on their necks."

ic conqueror of the three wolves, though h wounded, yet still faithful to his master; on account of his meritorious conduct on this sion, they agreed to forgive him his former emeanours, and retain him in their com"-DAVID FRANCIS PARK.

$ not often that in a contest between a horse olves the former comes off victorious; most y we find the result to be like that here led:-"The Echo de la Creuse states, that, thstanding the advanced period of the seaa the night of the 5th instant several wolves ed four horses grazing in a field in the comof Gueret. One of the horses being fetwas incapable of making his escape, and was unately devoured by the wolves."

EE AND ADDER (p. 86).—INQUIRER.—It is aly true, that viper and adder are but difnames for the same animal, which is the poisonous snake in the island of Great n; but the adder is exclusively the Scottish nation, while the viper is that of England, in some counties it is found in great abunIn the islands of Caledonia, where heath minates, the adder is extremely abundantological inquirer finding it in his way when s out to pursue his investigations. The Isle 1, for example, was wont to be very full of nch-feared adder, concealed by the branches arple heath, beside which waved the bell of our beloved Scotia, those flowers so celebrated by our island poets. This species luber grows to about two or three feet in b, though often found to be smaller. Its general r is a dirty yellow, with along the back a of irregular black spots, joined at the points. is the only poisonous British species of 8. Towards the summer's close it brings its young alive; these are very active, being to take refuge in the stomach of the mother 1 danger is apparent; but this idea may arisen from the case of their production, or their extreme swiftness deceiving the human n. A poison-fang is in each upper jaw.

TAIN J. RITCHIE.

IPER.-This is the Vipera Berus of naturalthe only poisonous reptile indigenous to this atry; the fat of it was formerly in high ree for making ointment, and country people often ask at the druggist's for viper's oil, ng the olive oil, or any other oil which may be stituted for it, to make, combined with "oil of ck," and a variety of other ingredients, a ament for rheumatic affections, spasms, &c.; by often find, too, that faith and friction togeer do wonders, but it is the fat of the reptile aich has most of the credit. Country people

think, too, that for the venemous bite of the viper, or adder, as it is often called, there is nothing so good as the creature's fat rubbed over the wound. That any fatty matter rubbed gently and persistently into the bitten limb in this case is beneficial there can be no doubt. For the faintness which affects those who have met with this accident, repeated small doses of brandy should be administered, or sal volatile, or some other stimulant, to rouse the system to repel the torpidity caused by the poison; mustard poultices may also be applied to the feet, calves of the legs, and the spine, and warm poultices to the limbs, which will probably be much swollen, and very painful. Persons have died from the effects of a viper bite, but this has not often happened; in the majority of cases they recover, if proper means are used.-Family Doctor.

PUFF-ADDER (p. 86).-This is the most venomous of all the serpent tribe. It is a native of Africa, through which quarter of the globe it appears to be widely distributed. Its scientific name is Clotho arietans, like its common one, derived from a habit it has of inflating itself, and making a puffing noise when provoked. The colour of this deadly snake is very similar to the sandy and stony places which it frequents; and as it flattens itself against the ground when not excited, there is less likelihood of its being observed. According to Dr. Burchell, the venom of this reptile is so deadly that there is no chance of saving the life of the person bitten otherwise than by instantly cutting out the flesh around the wound. Instead of darting forward when irritated, like most serpents, this throws itself backward to attack; and is, therefore, especially dangerous to those unaware of this peculiarity. By keeping always to the front, the above-named traveller, when he fell in with the puff-adder, was generally enabled to destroy it without much difficulty. Now we are upon the subject of this snake, we may relate an anecdote of another venomous reptile, also found in the same part of the world. We quote it from F. Flemming's account of the Geography, Natural History, &c., of Southern Africa. Not even the puff-adder has a more sinister fame than the monster toad, about a foot long, and eight inches wide, with a spotted green back, yellow belly, and large red eyes, which, the Kaffirs say, spit fire. Men and animals abhor it; horses are shy when it appears, or when its discordant croak is heard in the

marshes:

"Three brothers, Dutch boers, lived together in a large farm-house, in the western district of Clanwilliam, in the old Cape Colony. One day, whilst two of them were out, a 'smouse,' or pedlar

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