ledge, delusive impression; from delusive impression, general notions; from them, particulars; from them, the six seats [or outward objects] of the senses; from them, contract; from it, definite sensation and perception; from it, thirst or desire; from it, embryotic [physical] existence; from it, birth or actual physical existence; from it, all the distinctions of genus and species among animate things; from them decay and death, after the manner and period peculiar to each. Such is the procession of all things into existence from Avidyá, or delusion: and in the inverse order to that of their procession, they retrograde into non-existence. And the egress and regress are both Karmas, wherefore this system is called Kármika. (Sákya to his disciples in the Raksha Bhagavati.)

3. The existence of the versatile world is derived sheerly from fancy or imagination, or belief in its reality; and this false notion is the first Karma of Manas, or first act of the sentient principle, as yet unindividualized (?) and unembodied. This belief of the unembodied sentient principle in the reality of a mirage is attended with a longing after it, and a conviction of its worth and reality; which longing is called Sanskára and constitutes the second+ Karma of Manas. When Sanskára becomes excessive, incipient individual consciousness arises [third Karmia]: thence proceeds an organised and definite, but archetypal body, the seat of that consciousness, [fourth Karma]: from the last results the existence of [the six sensible and cognizable properties of] natural objects, moral and physical, [fifth Karma.]

*The Dasa Karma are, 1 Sanskara, 2 Vijnana, 3 Namarúpa, 4 Shadayatana, 5 Vedana, 6 Trishna, 7 Upadana, 8 Bhava, 9 Jati, 10 Jaramarana. The first, not second; ten in all.

So I render, after much inquiry, the Shadayatana, or six seats of the senses external and internal; and which are in detail as follows: Rúpa, Sabda, Ganda, Rasa, Sparsa, Dharma. There is an obvious difficulty as to Sparsa, and some also as to Dharma. The whole category of the Ayatanas expresses outward things: and after much investigation, I gather, that under Rúpa is comprised not only colour, but form too, so far as its discrimination (or, in Karmika terms, its existence) depends on sight; and that all other unspecified properties of body are referred to Sparsa, which therefore includes not only temperature, roughness, and smoothness, and hardness, and its opposite, but also gravity, and even extended figure, though not extension in the abstract.

Here we have not merely the secondary or sensible properties of matter, but also the primary ones; and, as the existence of the Ayatans or outward objects perceived, is said to be derived from the Indriyas, (or from Manas, which is their collective energy,) in other words, to be derived from the sheer exercise of the percipient powers the Karmika system amounts to idealism. Nor is there any difficulty thence arising in reference to the Karmika doctrine, which clearly affirms that theory by its derivation of all things from Pratyaya (belief), or from Avidya (ignorance). But the Indriyas and Ayatans, with their necessary connexion, (and, possibly, also, the making Avidya the source of all things,) belong likewise to one section at least of the Swabhavika school; and, in regard to it, it will require a nice hand to exhibit this Berkleyan notion

When the archetypally embodied sentient principle comes to exercise itself on these properties of things, then definite perception or knowledge is produced, as that this is white, the other, black; this is right, the other wrong, [sixth Karma.] Thence arises desire or worldly affection in the archetypal body, [seventh Karma,] which leads to corporeal conception, [eighth,] and that to physical birth, [ninth.] From birth result the varieties of genus and species distinguishing animated nature, tenth Karma,] and thence come decay and death in the time and manner peculiar to each, [eleventh and final Karma]. Such is the evolution of all things in Pravritti; opposed to which is Nirvritti; and the recurrence of Nirvritti is the sheer consequence of the abandonment of all absurd ideas respecting the reality and stability of Pravritti, or, which is the same thing, the abandonment of Avidyá; for, when Avidya is relinguished or overcome, Sanskára and all the rest of the Karmas or acts of the sentient principle, vanish with it; and also, of course, all mundane things and existences, which are thence only derived. Now, therefore, we see that Pravritti or the versatile world is the consequence of affection for a shadow, in the belief that it is a substance; and Nirvritti is the consequence of an abandonment of all such affection and belief. And Pravritti and Nireritti, which divide the universe, are Karmas; wherefore the system is called Kármika. [Comment on quotation 2.]

4. Since the world is produced by the Karma of Manas, or sheer act of the percipient principle, it is therefore called Kármika. The manner of procession of all things into existence is thus: from the union of Upaya* and of Prajná, Manas proceeded; existing co-ordinately with the leading tenet of the Swábhávikas. In the way of explanation I may observe, first, that the denial of material entity involved in the Indriya and Ayatan theory (as in that of Avidya) respects solely the versatile world of Pravritti, or of specific forms merely, and does not touch the Nirvrittika state of formative power and of primal substance, to which latter, in that condition, the qualities of gravity, and even of extended figure, in any sense cognizable by human faculties, are denied, at the same time, that the real and even eternal existence of a substance, in that state, is affirmed.

Second, though Dharma, the sixth Ayatan, be rendered by virtue, the appropriated object of the internal sense, it must be remembered, that most of the Swibhávikas, whilst they deny a moral ruler of the universe, affirm the existence of morality as a part of the system of nature. Others again (the minority) of the Swáblávikas reject the sixth Indriya, and sixth Ayatan, and, with them, the sixth Dhyani Buddha, or Vajra Satwa, who, by the way, is the Magnus Apollo of the Tantrikas, a sect the mystic and obscene character of whose ritual is redeemed by its unusually explicit enunciation and acknowledgment of a "God above all."

The published explanations of the procession of all things from Avidya appear to me irreconcilably to conflict with the ideal basis of the theory.

*

See Fahian, 159 and 291. See also Gogerly, p. 15, his enumeration is precisely ours, though his explanation differs, and is I think unintelligible, as is also Colebrooke's. See Ceylon Journal, No. 1.

and from Manas, Avidyá; and from Avidyá, Sanskára; and from Sanskára, Vijnana; and from Vijnána, Námarúpa; and from Námarúpa, the Shad Ayatan; and from them, Vedaná; and from it, Trishná; and from it, Upádána; and from it, Bhava; and from it Játi; and from it, Jarámarana. And from Játirúpya Manas, [i. e., the sentient principle in organized animate beings] emanated the ten virtues and ten vices. And as men's words and deeds partake of the character of the one or the other, is their lot disposed; felicity being inseparably bound to virtue, and misery to vice, by the very nature of Karma.

Such is the procession of all things into existence from Manas through Avidyá: and when Avidyá ceases, all the rest cease with it. Now, since Avidyá is a false knowledge, and is also the medium of all mundane existence, when it ceases, the world vanishes; and Manas, relieved from its illusion, is absorbed into Upaya Prajná.† Pravritti is the state of things under the influence of Avidyá; and the cessation of Avidyá is Nirvritti; Pravritti and Nirvritti are both Karmas. [Another comment on Quot. 2.]

5. The actions of a man's former births constitute his destiny. [Punya Paroda.]

6. He who has received from nature such wisdom as to read his own heart, and those of all others, even he cannot erase the characters which Vidhátri§ has written on his forehead. [Avadána Kalpalatá.]

7. As the faithful servant walks behind his master when he walks, and stands behind him when he stands, so every animate being is bound in the chains of Karma. (Avadána Kalpalatá.)

*That is; colour, odour, savour, sound, the properties dependent on touch, (which are hardness, and its opposite, temperature, roughness and smoothness, and also, I believe, gravity and extended figure,) and lastly, right and wrong. They are called the seats of the six senses, the five ordinary, and one internal. In this quotation I have purposely retained the original terms. Their import may be gathered from the immediately preceding quotations and note, which the curious may compare with Mr. Colebrooke's explication. See his paper on the Bauddha philosophy, apud Trans. Roy. As. Society, quarto vol. The following are the details of the three catagories, viz:—

8. Karma accompanies everyone, everywhere, every instant, through the forest, and across the ocean, and over the highest mountains, into the heaven of Indra, and into Pátála (hell); and no power can stay it. (Avadána Kalpalatá.)

9. Kanála, son of king Asoka, because in one birth he plucked out the golden eyes from a Chaitya,* had his own eyes plucked out in the next; and because he in that birth bestowed a pair of golden eyes on a Chaitya, received himself in the succeeding birth eyes of unequalled splendour. (Avadána Kalpalatá.)

10. Sakya Sinha's son, named Rahula Bhadra, remained six years in the womb of his mother Yasodhará. The pain and anxiety of mother and son were caused by the Karmas of their former births. (Avadana Kalpalatá.)

11. Although I had acquired (Sákya speaks of himself) a perfect body, still, even in this body, defect again appeared; because I had yet to expiate a small residue of the sins of former births. (Lalita Vistara.)

THE YATNIKAT SYSTEM.

1. Iswara (Adi-Buddha) produced Yatna from Prajná; and the cause of Pravritti and Nirvritti is Yatna; and all the difficulties that occur in the affairs of this world and the next are vanquished by Yatna (or conscious intellectual effort.) (Divya Avadána.)

2. That above mentioned Iswara, by means of Yatna, produced the five Jnánas, whence sprang the five Buddhas. The five Buddhas, in like manner, i. e., by means of Yatna, produced the five Bodhi satwas; and they again, by the same means, created the greater Devatás from their bodies, and the lesser ones, from the hairs of their bodies. In like man

Chaitya is the name of the tomb temples or relicconsecrated churches of the Buddhists. The essential part of the structure is the basal hemisphere: above this a square neck or Gala always supports the acutely conical or pyramidal superstructure; and on all four sides of that neck two eyes are placed, which are typical of omniscience. Wherever the hemisphere is found, it is indisputable evidence of Buddhism, e. g., 'the topes' of Manikúlaya aud of Peshawar. In niches at the base of the hemisphere are frequently enshrined four of the five Dhyani Buddhas, one opposite to each cardinal point. Akshobhya occupies the eastern niche; Ratna sambhava, the southern; Amitabha, the western ; and Amoghasiddha, the northern. Vairochana, the first Dhyani Buddha is supposed to occupy the centre, invisibly. Sometimes, however, he appears visibly, being placed at the right-hand of Akshobhya.

From Yatna, intellect, intellectual force and

resource.

§ This, as I conceive, is an attempt to remedy that cardinal defect of the older Swabharika school, viz., the denial of personality, and conscious power and wisdom in the first cause. To the same effect is the Karmika assertion, that Manas proceeded from the union of Upaya and Prajna. Karma I understand to mean conscious moral effort, and Yatna, conscious intellectual effort. Their admission in respect to human nature implies its free will, as their assignation to the divine nature implies its personality.

ner, Brahma created the three Lokas* and all moving and motionless things. Among mortals, all difficulties are overcome by Yatna; for example, those of the sea by ships, those of illness by medicine, those of travelling by equipages-and want of paper, by prepared skin and bark of trees. And as

all our worldly obstacles are removed by Yatna, so the wisdom which wins Nirvritti for us is the result of Yatna; because by it alone are charity and the rest of the virtues acquired. Since therefore all the goods of this world and of the next depend upon Yatna, Sákya Sinha wandered from region to region to teach mankind that cardinal truth. (Comment on quotation 1.)

3. That Adi-Buddha, whom the Swábhávikas call Swabháva, and the Aiswarikas, Iswara,§ produced a Bodhisatwa, who, having migrated through the three worlds, and through all six forms of animate existence, and experienced the goods and evils of every state of being, appeared, at last, as Sákya Sinha, to teach mankind the real sources of happiness and misery, and the doctrines of the four schools of philosophy: and then, by means of Yatna, having obtained Bodhi-jnána, and having fulfilled all the Páramitás (transcendental virtues,) he at length became Nirvána. (Divya Avadána.)

4. Sákya Sinha, having emanated from that selfexistent, which, according to some, is Swabháva, and, according to others, is Iswara, was produced for the purpose of preserving all creatures. He first adopted the Praviitti Márga (secular character,) and in several births exercised Yatna and Karma, reaping the fruits of his actions in all the three worlds. He then exercised Yatna and Karma in the Nirvritti Márga (ascetical or monastic character) essaying a release from this mortal coil, fulfilling the ten virtues from the Satya to the Dwápara Yuga, till at last, in the Kali Yuga, having completely freed himslf from sublunary cares, having become a Bhikshuka," and gone to Buddha Gaya, he rejected and reviled the Brahmanical penance, did all sorts of true penance for six years under the tree of knowledge on the banks of the Niranjana river; conquered the Namuchimára,*|| obtained Bodhijnyán, became the most perfect of the Buddhas, seated himself among the Bodhisatwas, (Ananda Bhikshu and the rest,) granted wisdom to the simple, fulfilled the desires of millions of people, and *The celestial, terrene, and infernal divisions of the versatile universe.

§ Passages of this entirely pyrrhonic tenure incessantly recur in the oldest and highest authorities of the Buddhists; hence the assertion of the preface that Sugatism is rather sceptical than atheistically dogmatic.

Expressly called by my Bauddha pandit the Swabhavika, Aiswarika, Yatnika, and Karmika systems; and the terms well denote the things meant to be designated: see note at p. 118 vol. 1.

** Mendicant: one of the four regular orders of the Bauddhas. See the preface.

* A Daitya of Kanchanapara, personification of the principle of evil. Bodhijnána is the wisdom of Buddhism. Ananda was one of the first and ablest of Sakya's disciples. The first code of Buddhism is attributed to him in conjunction with Kasyapa and Upali. He succeeded the former as heresiarch.

gave Moksha to them and to himself. Vistara.)

(Lalita

5. A hare fell in with a tiger: by means of Yatna the hare threw the tiger into a well. Hence it appears that Yatna prevails over physical force, knowledge, and the Mantras. (Bhadra Kalpavadána.)

6. Nara Sinha, Rája of Benares, was a monster of cruelty. Satta Swama Rája, by means of Yatna, compelled him to deliver up 100 Rájkumárs, whom Nara Sinha had destined for a sacrifice to the gods. (Bhadra Kalpávadana.)

7. Sudhana Kumára found a beautiful daughter of a horse-faced Rája named Drúma. By means of Yatna he carried her off, and kept her; and was immortalized for the exploit. (Swayambhú Purána.)

ADI-BUDDHA.†

1. Know that when, in the beginning, all was perfect void (Mahá súnyatá,) and the five elements were not, then Adi-Buddha, the stainless, was revealed in the form of flame or light.

2. He in whom are the three gunas, who is the Mahá Múrti and the Visvarúpa (form of all things.) became manifest: he is the self-existent great Buddha, the Adi nátha, the Maheswara.

3. He is the cause of all existences in the three worlds; the cause of their well-being also. From his profound meditation (Dhyána,) the universe was produced by him.

4. He is the self-existent, the Iswara, the sum of perfections, the infinite, void of members or passions: all things are types of him, and yet he was no type: he is the form of all things, and yet formless.

5. He is without parts, shapeless, self-sustained, void of pain and care, eternal and not eternal ;§ him I salute. (Káranda Vyúha.)

The doctrine of Súnyata is the darkest corner of the metaphysical labyrinth. Eighteen kinds of Súnyata are enumerated in the Raksha Bhagavati. I understand it to mean generally space, which some of our philosophers have held to be a plenum, others a va сиит. In the transcendental sense of the Buddhists, it signifies not merely the universal ubi, but also the modus existendi of all things in the state of quiescence and abstraction from phænomenal being. The Buddhists have eternised matter or nature in that state. The energy of nature ever is, but is not ever exerted ; and when not exerted, it is considered to be void of all those qualities which necessarily imply perishableness, and, which is the same thing, of all those qualities which are cognisable or distinguishable, and hence the energy in that state is typed by sheer space. Most of the Buddhists deem (upon different grounds) all phanomena to be as purely illusory as do the Vedantists. The phænomena of the latter are sheer energies of God; those of the former are sheer energies of Nature, deified and substituted for God. See note on quot. 6 of this section Adi Sangha. The Aiswarikas put their Adi Buddha in place of the nature of the older Swabharikas. See Journal of As. Soc. No. 33, Art. 1.

§ One in Nirvritti; the other in Pravritti; and so of all the preceding contrasted epithets. Nirvritti is quiescence and abstraction: Pravritti, action and concretion. All the schools admit these two modes, and thus

6. Adi-Buddha is without beginning. He is perfect, pure within, the essence of the wisdom of thatness, or absolute truth. He knows all the past. His words are ever the same.

7. He is without second. He is omnipresent. He is the Nairatmya lion to the Kútirthya deer.* (Nam sangiti.)

8. I make salutation to Adi-Buddha, who is one and sole in the universe; who gives every one Bodhi-jnyán; whose name is Upaya; who became manifest in the greatest Súnyatá, as the letter A. Who is the Tathagata; who is known only to those who have attained the wisdom of absolute truth. (Nam sangiti.)

9. As in the mirror we mortals see our forms reflected, so Adi-Buddha is known (in Pravritti) by the thirty-two lakshanas and eighty anuvinjanas. (Nam sangiti.)

(To be continued.)

frontiers of Hami. The princess Hwui ho

of the Tang dynasty dwelt here. In the neigh

bourhood is the lake T'ang tsuen chiAL

The Kan lo chuen river is to the N. E. of Hamiĭ, 300 li. It was here that during the T'ang dynasty in A.D. 688 the army [camp?] of I-wu or I-ngu was established. 伊吾

Marco Polo gives the name of Kamul to Hami and says that it is in Tangut. See Marsden's Marco Polo, p. 171 and 173, where a full description of the strange customs of the people is given, also the authorities referred to by De Guignes.

(To be continued.)

* Comment says, that Nairatmya is Sarva Dharmanam nirabhas lakshanan,' that is, all things are unreal; and that Tirtha means Moksha, and Kutirtha, any perversion of the doctrine of Moksha, as to say it consists in absorption into Brahma: and it explains the whole thus, He thunders in the ears of all those who misinterpret Moksha, there is no true Moksha but Sunyata.' Another comment gives the sense thus, dividing the sentence into two parts, There is no atma (life or soul) without him: he alarms the wicked as the lion the deer.' The first commentator is a Swabhavika; the second, an Aiswarika one.

Here called the Fan.

The Mastery Series; German, 5th edition; French, 4th edition; Spanish, 2nd edition. London: Longmans, Green, and Co. 1871.

There is one class of persons which seizes upon and admires the "royal road" to knowledge, and there is another which decries every short cut of this kind. They are both right, and both wrong in a degree. The error of the one is in taking up too readily ill-digested and crude attempts, which bid fair to communicate knowledge rapidly, but which fail from lack of any scientific basis; and the mistake the other makes is in supposing that the old path is always the true path, and that what our forefathers accomplished by dint of hard work nowadays with the same lavish waste of time as in a very roundabout method should be achieved

of old.

We confess to have often had misgivings respecting the laborious processes of cramming grammatical rules and exceptions, giving such poor results; and we profess a contempt for the generality of essays which profess to teach languages in a few short lessons.

The study of languages is to be attained on the principle of the frequent iteration of correct examples, so arranged as to involve grammatical principles, so that the learner may find like the Bourgeois Gentilhomme that he speaks correctly, though indeed prosaically, without being aware of it,— and being innocent of the technicalities of grammar.

*De Guignes mentions two Kan lo tsuen's but the Chinese text does not.

The late Sir George Staunton's father had so strong an opinion on the necessity of the pupil being taught to speak the language he was studying that he imported a German gentleman to this country to teach his son to speak Latin and Greek, and the plan succeeded, for though Sir George was probably never able to write Greek alcaics or Latin sapphics, or emulate Cicero in his prose compositions, he did speak those languages with a degree of facility which was surprising.

Our object in thus trespassing upon our readers' time with these somewhat trite remarks is to call attention to a method which strikes us as being sound in principle and eminently practical. The name which the author has given to the method, is the Mastery of Languages; and it professes to put its followers into the possession of a means by which they may obtain a thorough power over the language they take in hand as far as their vocabulary extends. It appears to deal with language as a whole, and with sentences as the elements and units of language. Words thus become of use only as the bricks or stones of a building, to be employed by the synthetical mind to raise the structure on a given pattern. The result is not produced by previous analysis, but by the natural process of mimicry. The method aims at nothing more than the idiomatic acquisition of a language, and leaves out of view all those peculiar forms of speech, such as proverbial and eliptical expressions, which must be acquired piecemeal and in due course.

Learning to speak foreign languages is now a necessity. French and German are supposed to be taught in every respectable school. But what lamentable figures English schoolboys commonly cut when they attempt to employ their acquirements in this direction. And this is not surprising when we consider the method or rather want of method which prevails in many schools and in private tuition. Cramming, gorging languages in not learning them. The great error consists in wanting to go on by rapid strides, getting through the vocabulary with all speed. Hurrying through books and saying they have been read reminds us of Mr. Verdant Green's first visit to Oxford, and his "doing" the city under a native guide, who managed to communicate so much in the two hours tour that Messrs. Green, père et fils, had a most ludicrous idea of the whole (nec pes, nec caput) left on the tablet of the brain. The special courier certainly sees the country he passes through in his rapid course, but he comes back with very little knowledge of it; he has not time to fix anything in his mental consciousness, he knows the names of the inns he stops at, and some of the more conspicuous objects which arrest his attention, but any special edification from his remarks may be expected in vain. Now in learning languages it is very much the same thing. If we want to make real progress we must be content to move slowly at first. When we have laid the rails securely we can go at express speed, but until the sleepers are resting upon a solid foundation we cannot go on rapidly without great danger, without having to come up suddenly more often than is agreeable, and finding ourselves at the journey's

end considerably exhausted without the consolation of having made any satisfactory progress.

The following extracts will shew what Mr. Prendergasts' views are, and do, we think, favourably introduce his system.

Mr. Prendergast would present to the pupil one long sentence in sections; each section to be mastered before proceding to the next, and with each section a number of variations of the same words without additions.

"In the colloquial acquisition of languages the intellect works mechanically; the reasoning powers are not called into active exercise, and the operation is performed almost exclusively by the memory. When the memory has made an ineffectual effort to recall a word, the imagination and the understanding can afford it no assistance.

The general meaning of each lesson is to be given at the outset, but the learner is not to receive an explanation of the individual words until he shall have carefully devoted five minutes to the pronunciation of the whole lesson.

The strictest economy of time and labour is attained by the limitation of the attention to one new lesson at a time; by the exclusion of all other words, except those previously acquired; and by the lightness of each new task imposed on the memory. The maximum of result is gained by the minimum of effort.

The primary sentences are so framed as to comprise in succession all those peculiar constructions which contrast most strongly with the forms of the learner's own language.

The rapid acquisition of a lesson is not taken into account in this system, but it provides for the perfect practical retention, by the memory, and for the fluent reproduction, of every sentence as volubly and as smoothly as when engaged in the most animated conversation. A rapid speaker utters more than 300 words in a minute.

Fluency is not to be despised because it is unintellectual, nor is it to be disparaged as if it were an affectation of extreme cleverness in reciting what has just been committed to memory. In reality it is the power of habitually recomposing sentences with greater rapidity than we can utter them, and therefore it ought to be cultivated and prized, not as a faculty excellent in itself, but as a manifestation of that thorough command over foreign words, which, when accompanied by promptitude and accuracy, constitutes Mastery, and which can only be obtained by reiterations with frequency.

In this frequency lies the secret power of the system of nature, which all children pursue, whether in learning their own or foreign languages. Instinct impels them to echo and repeat, not continuously, but at short intervals, the first sentences which they have learned by rote, and gradually to interchange the words one by one.

There is a lamentable want of method observable in the learning of languages. It is obvious that those who wish to learn a language colloquially should commit to memory nothing but practical sentences adapted for immediate use. But gener ally boys are so trained, that their memory is over