BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. Continued from page 125.

Nor did I often care to rejoin, that he had taught me so to interpret that important word (Tathagata) as to strip the dogma of its necessarily theistic spirit! I have already remarked in your Journal,* that the Swábhávika texts, differently interpreted, form the groundwork of the Aiswarika tenets. It will not, however, therefore, follow, that the theistic school of Buddhism is not entitled to distinct recognition upon the ground of original authorities; for the oldest and highest authority of all-the aphorisms of the founder of the creed-are justly deemed, and proved, by the theistic school, to bear legitimately the construction put upon them by this school-proved in many ancient books, both Pauranika and Tántrika, the scriptural validity of which commands a necessary assent. As it seems to be supposed, that the theistic school has no other than Tantrika authorities for its support, I will just mention the Swayambhú Purána and the Bhadra Kalpávadána, as instances of the contrary. In a word, the theistic school of Buddhism, though not so ancient or prevalent as the atheistic and the sceptical schools, is as authentic and legitimate a scion of the original stock of oral dogmata whence this religion sprung, as any of the other schools. Nor is it to be confounded altogether with the vile obscenity and mystic mummery of the Tantras, though acknowledged to have considerable connexion with them. Far less is it to be considered peculiar to Nepaul and Tibet, proofs of the contrary being accessible to all; for instance, the Pancha Buddha Dhyani are inshrined in the cave at Bágh, and in the minor temples surrounding the great edifice at Gya; as to which see my old Bauddha Pandit's report further on. A. Cunningham of Bengal, Wilson of Bombay, and Chapman of Madras, have all recorded opinions substantially the same. And I have myself seen a fine image of Padma Páni, the son of the Dhyáni Buddha Amitábha, at Karnagurh on the Ganges. As I was looking over your Journal, my Newári painter came into the room. I gave him the catch word, "Ye Dharma," and he immediately filled up the sentence, finishing with Tathagata. I then uttered "teshán cha," and he completed the doctrine according to the inscription. But it was to no purpose that I tried to carry him on through Csoma's ritual complement: he knew it not. After I had explained its meaning to him, he said, the substance of the passage was familiar to him, but that he had been taught to utter the sentiments in other words, which he gave, and in which, by the way, the ordinary Buddhist acceptation of Kusal and its opposite, or Akusal, came out. Kusal is good. Akusal is evil, in a moral or religious sense. Quod licitum vel mandatum : quod illicitum vel prohibitum.

I will presently send you a correct transcript of the words of the inscription, from some old and authentic copy of the Raksha Bhágavati, or Prajná Páramitá, as you seem to prefer calling it. So will I of Csoma's supplement so soon as I can lay my hands on the Shurangamá Samádhi, which I do not *i. e., J. A. S. B.

think I have by me. At all events, I do not at once recognise the name as that of a distinct Bauddha work. Meanwhile, you will notice, that as my draftsman, above spoken of, is no pandit, but a perfectly illiterate craftsman merely, his familiar acquaintance with your inscription may serve to show how perfectly familiar it is to all Buddhists. And here I would observe, by the way, that I have no doubt the inscription on the Dehli, Allahabad, and Behar pillars is some such cardinal dogma of this faith.

I am no competent critic of Sanskrit, but I have competent authority for the assertion, that Dharmá, as used in the inscription, means not human actions merely, but all sentient existences in the three versatile worlds (celestial, terrene, and infernal). Such is its meaning in the famous Ye Dharmanitya of the Sata Sahasrika, where the sense is even larger, embracing the substance of all inanimate as well as animate entity, thus: "All things are imperishable," or, The universe is eternal,” (without maker or destroyer.) The passage just quoted from the Sata Sahasrika serves likewise (I am assured) to prove that the signification of ye is not always strictly relative, but often expletive merely: but let that

pass.

The points in question undoubtedly are,-existence in the Právrittika or versatile world, and cessation of such existence, by translation to the world of Nirvritti; and of such translation, animals generally, and not human beings solely, are capable. Witness the deer and the chakwa, which figure so much in Bauddha sculptures! The tales of their advancement to Nirvritti are popularly familiar. The word nirodha signifies, almost universally and exclusively, extinction, or total cessation of versatile existence; a meaning, by the way, which confirms and answers to the interpretation of dharma, by general existences, entities, and not by merely human actions. The causes of versatile existence and of its extinction are given at pp. 45-47.

It is scarcely worth while to cumber the present question with the further remark that there is a sect of Bauddha philosophers holding opinions which confound conscious actions with universal entities throughout the versatile world, making the latter originate absolutely and physically from the former, (see my remarks on Rémusat in the Journal, No. 33, p. 431.)

It is not, however, admissible so to render generally received texts, as to make them correspondent to very peculiar dogmata. "Dháranátmaka iti dharma," the holding, containing, or sustaining, essence (ens) is dharma.' The substratum of all form and quality in the versatile universe, the sustainer (in space) of versatile entity, mundane substances and existences, physical and moral, in a word, all things. Such is the general meaning of dharma. How many other meanings it has, may be seen by reference to a note at the foot of p. 502, No. 34, of your Journal. The root of the word is dhri, 'to hold.' Wilson's dictionary gives Nature as Amara Sinha's explanation of dharma. This is essentially correct, as might be expected from a Bauddha lexiSee p. 124, in notes.

cographer. The English word "substance" is the precise equivalent of dharma, which means that which supports qualities in space, and of the Brahmanic mátrá, meaning that which measures space or limits space, because space is only measurable by the substances it holds. I speak here merely of etymologies.

NOTE. If Mr. Hodgson's general interpretation of dharma is the true one, (which seems most probable, though its specification in the sense of moral duties is more agreeable to M. Csoma's supplement)—its implication, in the present reading, at least, appears manifestly atheistic. For that it cannot mean "Tathágata or the Adi-Buddha is the cause," is evident from the accusative hétún (which is also plural, causas.) Even if we were to strike out the word avadat or áha-the former of which is on the inscriptions, and the latter repeated in Ceylonstill some word of that meaning is plainly understood: and this may help to shew that the explication given by the Aiswarika Buddhists (as though the words were hétus téshám Tathágatas) is a more recent invention, and that the Buddhist system properly recognizes no being superior to the sage expounder of physical and moral causes, -whose own exertions alone have raised him to the highest rank of existences,-the Epicurus of this great Oriental system,

qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas, Atque metus omnes et inexorabile fatum Subjecit pedibus.

What is mere figure of speech in the Roman poet, to express the calm dignity of wisdom, becomes religious faith in the east; viz., the elevation of a philosophical opponent of popular superstition and Brahmanical caste, to the character of a being supreme over all visible and invisible things, and the object of universal worship.-W. H. M.

Note on the Note of W. H. M.-My friendly and learned annotator is right as to the comparative recency of the Aiswarika school and may find that opinion long since expressed by myself. But he is wrong in supposing that that school has no old or unquestionable basis; for both Mr. Csoma and myself have produced genuine and ancient authorities in its support. So that it is hardly fair to revert to the fancies of Sir W. Jones' day, under cover of a Latin quotation! As to verbal criticism, it is surely scarce necessary to observe that the governing verb being removed, the noun will take the nominative case. I quoted popular words popularly and omitted the nice inflexions of case and number. That my terser text is familiar to the mouths of Buddhists, is an unquestionable fact; and I never said, either that this terser form was that of the inscription, or that I had seen scriptural authority for it, ipsissimis verbis.

The express causes of versatile existence, alluded to by Sákya, in the text graved at Sarnath, are Avidyá, Sanskára, etc., as enumerated in my "Quotations in Proof" under the head of the Kármika

The Swayambhú Purána relates in substance as follows: That formerly the valley of Nepaul was of circular form, and full of very deep water, and that the mountains confining it were clothed with the densest forests, giving shelter to numberless birds and beasts. Countless waterfowl rejoiced in the waters. The name of the lake was Naga Vâsa;§ it was beautiful as the lake of Indra; south of the Hemáchal, the residence of Karkotaka, prince of the Nâgas; seven cos long, and as many broad. In the lake were many sorts of water-plants; but not the lotos. After a time, Vipasyî Buddha arrived, with very many disciples and Bhikshus, from Vindúmati Nagar, in Madhya Desa, at the Lake of Naga Vâsa, in the course of his customary religious peregrinations. Vipasyî, having thrice circumambulated the lake, seated himself in the N. W. (Váyukona) side of it, and, having repeated several mantras over the root of a lotos, he threw it into the water, exclaiming, "What time this root shall produce a flower, then, from out of the flower, Swayambhú, the Lord of Agnishtha Bhuvana, shall be revealed in the form of flame; and then shall the lake become a cultivated and populous country." Having repeated these words, Vipasyî departed. Long after the date of this prophecy, it was fulfilled according to the letter.

After Vipasyi Buddha, came Sikhí Buddha to Naga Vâsa with a great company of respectful followers, composed of rajas and persons of the four castes (chatur varna). Sikhí, so soon as he beheld Jyoti-rúpa-Swayambhú, offered to him many laudatory forms of prayer: then rising, he thrice walked round Naga Vasa, and, having done so, thus addressed his disciples. "This place shall hereafter, by the blessing of Swayambhu, become a delightful abode to those who shall resort to it from all quarters to dwell in it, and a sweet place of sojourn for the pilgrim and passenger: my apotheosis is now near at hand, do you all take your leave of me and depart to your own country." So saying Sikhí threw himself into the waters of Naga Vâsa, grasping in his hands the stalk of the lotos, and his soul was absorbed into the essence of Swayambhú. Many of his disciples, following their master, threw them

* Printed from the Bengal Asiatic Journal, No. 29, A. D. 1834.

§ When the lake was desiccated (by the sword of Manjusri says the myth-probably earthquake) Karkotaka had a fine tank built for him to dwell in; and there he is still worshipped, also in the cave-temple appendant to the great Buddhist shrine of Swayambhú Nath.

selves into the lake, and were absorbed into Swayambhú, i. e., the self-existent; the rest returned home. Viswabhú was the third Buddha who visited Nága Vâsa. Viswabhú was born in Anupama-puri-nagar, of Madhya Desa; his life was devoted to benefitting his fellow-creatures. His visit to Nepaul was long after that of Sikhí, and, like Sikhí, he brought with him a great many disciples and Bhikshus, Rajas and cultivators, natives of his own land. Having repeated the praises of Swayambhújyoti-rúpa, he observed; "In this lake Prajná-surúpa-Guhyeswari will be produced. A Bodhisatwa will, in time, make her manifest out of the waters: and this place, through the blessing of Swayambhú, will become replete with villages, towns, and tirthas, and inhabitants of various and diverse tribes." Having thus prophesied he thrice circumambulated the lake, and returned to his native country. The Bodhisatwa above alluded to is Manju Srí, whose native place is very far off, towards the north, and is called Pancha Sírsha Parvata, [which is situated in Mahá Chína Des.§] After the coming of Viswablú Buddha to Naga Vâsa, Manju Srí, meditating upon what was passing in the world, discovered by means of his divine science that Swayambhu-jyotirúpa, that is, the self-existent, in the form of flame, was revealed out of a lotos in the lake of Naga Vâsa. Again, he reflected within himself: "Let me behold that sacred spot, and my name will long be celebrated in the world;" and on the instant, collecting together his disciples, comprising a multitude of the peasantry of the land, and a Raja named Dharmákar, he assumed the form of Viswakarma, and with his two Devís (wives,) and the persons above-mentioned, set out upon the long journey from Sírsha Parvata to Nâga Vâsa. There having arrived, and having made pújá to the self-existent, he began to circumambulate the lake, beseeching all the while the aid of Swayambhú in prayer. In the second circuit, when he had reached the central barrier mountain to the south, he became satisfied that that was the best place whereat to draw off the waters of the lake. Immediately he struck the mountain with his scimitar, when the sundered rock gave passage to the waters, and the bottom of the lake became dry. He then descended from the mountain, and began to walk about the valley in all directions. As he approached Guhyeswari,|| he

*That is the mystic form of Prajná, who is the same with Dharma and the Sakti of Swayambhú or Adi-Buddha, according to the Triadists. The type of Adi-Buddha in Nepaul is fire-that of Adi-Dharma or Prajná or Guhyeswari is water-or she has no type, is of a secret form, i. e., Guhyeswari, or lastly, according to the Tantras, her type is the Yoni, which, as well as the whole ritual belonging to it, is Guhya or esoteric and concealed.

The Tibetans identify Manjusri with Thumisambhota, minister of King Strongtsun, who lived in the seventh century, and was the great introducer of Buddhism into Tibet. Manjusri's Tibetan name is Jamjang Thumi is an incarnation of him.

§ The bracketed portions are from the commentators. The site of the temple is near the centre of the valley, on the skirts of the lovely grove of Pasupati ;

beheld the water bubbling up violently from the spot, and betook himself with pious zeal to the task of stopping it. No sooner had he commenced than the ebullition of the water became less violent, when, leaving bare only the flower of the lotos, the root of which is the abode of Guhyeswarí, he erected a protecting structure of stone and brick over the recumbent stalk, and called the structure, which rose into a considerable elevation as it neared the flower of the lotos, Satya Giri. This work completed, Manju Srí began to look about him in search of a fit place of residence, and at length constructed for that purpose a small hill, to which he gave the name of Manju Srí Parvata, (the western half of the little hill of Sambhú Náth,) and called the desiccated valley, Népálá-Né signifying 'the sender' (to paradise,) who is Swayambhú, and pálá 'cherished'; implying that the protecting genius of the valley was Swayambhú or Adi-Buddha. Thus the valley got the name of Népálá: and. since very many persons had come from Mount Sírsha (or China) with Manju Srí, for the residence of Dharmakar Raja and his suite, Manju constructed a large place of abode [half way between Mount Swayambhu and Guhyeswari,] and named it after himself, Manju Pattana, and established therein Dharmakar [of Mahá Chína] as Raja, subjecting the whole of the inferior sort of people who came from Sírsha Parvata to Dharmakar's rule, and providing abodes for them in the city of Manju Pattana.

This

[Thus was Nepaul peopled, the first inhabitants of which came all from Mount Sírsha, which is in Mahá Chína, and thus the valley got the name of Népálá, and its inhabitants, that of Népálí, whose primitive language was Chinese.* language in course of time came to be much altered by the immigration of people from Madhya Desa, and by the necessary progress of corruption and change in a new country, till a new language arose in Nepaul by the natural course of things. The primitive inhabitants of Nepaul were all of one caste, or had no caste. But their descendants, in the course of time became divided into many castes, according to the trades and professions which they followed; and of these, such as abandoned the world and shaved their heads became Bhikshu, and above 2 or 3 miles east from Monnt Sambhú. The fable says, that the root of the lotos of Guhyeswari is at the former place, and the flower at the latter; the recumbent stalk being extended throughout the interval between them. Swayambhú or Adi-Buddha is supposed to reside in the flower, in the form of flame; Prajná Páramitá or Guhyeswarí, in or at the root, in the form of water. The temple of Guhyeswari has been appropriated by the Brahmans, who worship this goddess as the Sakti of Pasupati Náth, whose symbol is the four-faced Lingam. But it may be that the Buddhists are wrong in identifying Guhyeswari with Prajná, and that Guhyeswari, the Sakti of Pasupati Náth, is really one of the deities of Náthism- a half orthodox (Goraksha náth) and half heterodox (Matsyendra náth) divinity.

Manju Srí or Manju Ghosha (sweet voice) and Dharmakar are pure Sanskrit words, which fact makes against the alleged location of Mount Sirsha (also

Sramana, Chailaka, and Arhana, and took up their abode in forests or in monasteries. These four orders all monastic; and in strictness absolutely excluded from all worldly commerce. But should any of them, still retaining the custom of tonsure, become worldly men, such are called Srávaka, etc. to a great extent of diverse names.] Manju Sri, having by such deeds as these acquired the highest celebrity in Nepaul, [ostensibly, and for the instruction of the people] relinquished his mortal form and became nirván; [but in truth departed for Mount Sirsha with his two Devis, and in due course arrived at Pancha Sírsha Parvata.] Some time after the disappearance of Manju Sri, Karkut Sand Buddha came to Nepaul, with some Bhikshukas, Dharmapála Raja, and a multitude of the common people, from Kshêmâvatinagar, of Madhya Desa. The beauty of the country delighted him, and he remarked that in such a land the cultivator must be sure to reap as he sowed. He paid his devotions to Swayambhú, and then launched out in praise of the merits of Manju Srí, the Nepaulese patriarch. Afterwards he performed pújá to Guhyeswari, and then ascended Sankhocha mountain (Siva Púra :) the prospect of that valley from that mount filled him with fresh delight, and he again celebrated the excellence of the country. Gunadhvaja, a brahman, and Abhayandada, a kshetriya, and others of the four castes (chatúr varna,) respectful followers of Kurkut Sand, here solicited at his hands the favour of being made Bhikshukas, in order that they might remain in this happy land, and by the worship of Swayambhú attain to high merit and honour. Kurkut cheerfully complied, and agreed to make a great many of the company Bhikshukas; and since the mountain top afforded no water for that ceremony, he by his divine power caused a spring to issue from the rock, and with its waters gave to his followers the requisite Abhishêka or baptism. He called the river that originated with this spring Vángmati; and then related to his followers both the past and future history of the valley watered by the Vángmati. Then, having left behind him in Nepaul, Raja Dharmapál and some Bhikshus and common folks, who had come with h.m, and desired to stay, Kurkut Sand departed with the rest of them to his native city of Kshemávati. [These companions of Kurkut Sand, or Krakucchand, were the first natives of the plains of India (Madhya Desa) who remained in Nepaul. Many of them, addictSanskrit) in China, and there are grounds for supposing that mount Sirsha was in Assam.

彝

In the Nepaulese Vansavalis the first race of kings are apparently Gwallas and Saivas, or rather Pasupatas, who worshipped Pasupati and received the throne from a Rishi called Neyam. But this dynasty is open to doubt in all ways. The next dynasty is clearly barbariau and utterly alien to Sanskrit and India. It is of the Kirant tribe now located in all the eastern part of Nepaul. This evidence is indecisive. What says the Skand Purana, and what is its age compared with that of the Sambhu Purana? Physiognomy and speech decisively refer the Newars to the Tibetan stock.

*From Vach, 'speech.'

+ Srávaka and Sramana are equivalent.

149

ing themselves to the business of the world, became householders, and the founders of several towns and villages in Nepaul; whilst others, who adopted the ascetical profession, dwelt in the forests and Vihárs. When these Madhyadésiyas had become numerous in Nepaul, they and their descendants were confounded with the former or northern colonists under the common appellation of Népáli and Néwárí; being only separated and contradistinguished by the several trades and professions which they hereditarily practised. Thus, in the early ages, Nepaul had four classes of secular people, as Brahman, Kshetriya, Vaisya, and Sudra, and four ascetical classes, namely, Bhikshu, Sramana,† Chailaka, and Arhanta, dwelling in forests and monasteries, and all were Buddha-márgi.]

(To be continued.)

-O

EXAMPLES OF MONGOL AND EUROPEAN

COMMON WORDS.

[The Rev. Joseph Edkins has forwarded the following notes on the similarity between Mongol and Europeon common words as additional proof of his theory explained in his recently published work, "China's Place in Philology."]

Er, 'husband, male,' Latin vir. The v of Latin has the value of w. The Celtic form has g prefixed, as in Welsh gwr, a man, husband.' The English words virtue, worth, virile, virago, virgin, verdant, seem to be all connected with the same root. The Mongol, although like the Latin it has lost the initial g in this word, retains it in some of the family of words formed from the same root. Thus huchu 'strength,' huchiretu ‘difficult,' retains h, one of the commonest equivalents of g. In Chinese hwei 'to be able,' in the old form get, is perhaps a member of the same group. If we may also include the Mongol egusehu 'grow, and the Chinese k'i 'begin, rise, in the old form kit, we may also proceed to adduce our words grow, grass, green, great, as claiming a place in the same category. Welsh, codi 'rise,' coed trees, wood.'

The explanation of the origin of the root may be stated in this way. The beginning of motion was observed by primitive men on some occasion to be accompanied by a certain sound, which varied on different occasions. He imitated the sound with his vocal organs. The sound he uttered became the word which represented the object of thought. It would sometimes be bat, at other times bak, at other times git, etc. These would each become a verb if the action were thought of, a pronoun or substantive if the person acting or the originator of motion were thought of. Several demonstrative pronouns, neuter and transitive verbs, concrete and abstract and specific and generic substantives, would thus gradually come into use. For example, k'it or kut to begin,' may have found its way into Chinese; and the Mongol egusehu 'to grow,' the English grass that which grows, with green, its colour, and the Latin viridis, vis, vireo, without the initial g, may be supposed to have originated from such a beginning. In Greek the g has also disap

S

peared, as in arren male,' but remains in ĕgeirő rise,' where e is a prefix, as in the Mongol chilehu 'begin.'

Jarocha a servant,' jaroho 'to use, serve,' jarokdaho 'to be used'; Gr. doulos 'servant,' douleuð 'serve,' douleia ‘service'; Lat. servus, servo, servitudo. In Mongol, j always comes from d. But r, s, and 7, all originate in d or t. IIence the identity of these sets of words. The Chinese word is shi, anciently dit, 'to serve.' Manchu weilere 'to serve; w for dw. Initial jord is often lost in Manchu, as in wehe 'stone.'

Jigaho to point, teach,' doceo 'teach,' zeigen, deiknumi; j for d.

Dagaho 'to follow,' sequor 'follow'; s from d. Jug' place, direction,' Lat. locus; and j from d. The root of these words is probably the dok or dek in docco and dexter.

Ujihu see,' Gr. eido, eidon, oida, Eng. wit, i, t, s from d.

wise;

Sonosho 'to hear,' Lat. sonitus, sono, Eng. tone, sound; s from t.

Ayoho fear,' Lat. vereor, Gr. aideō, Eng. awe, Ch. wei for at.

Taiho 'to offer sacrifices, Gr.

Terigolokchi leader,' terigun 'head, first, beginning. The root is in the first two syllables, teri coinciding with the Chinese teu 'head' for dot, and the Hebrew rosh head,' reshith 'beginning.' In English and German, lead, leiten, seem to be the same word.

Medehu 'to know,' Sans. mata 'known,' mati 'understanding,' manushya 'man, the knowing being, man 'to know, think,' Eng. mind, man, probably derived from the first personal pronoun manai 'me, my.'

"Orida 'before,' erte early, Eng. early, ere, A.S. aer, er before, previously.' Perhaps the same with egusehu begin, grow,' the initial g`being lost.

Negehu open,' anoigo 'to open.

Hamto 'together,' cum, hama, Heb. gam 'with, also.'

Hot'un city,' Russ. gorod' city,' Serv. grade as in Belgrade, Heb. kir 'city,' Welsh caer 'city'; r from d. Chihe straight,' Lat. rectus, Eng. straight. The s is prefixed; Ch. chi for dik. Ch, r, t are all from d. Sor 'leather,' Eng. leather; I and s both from d. Gr. derma'skin,' derō 'to skin.'

Chilagon stone,' saxum 'rock,' Ch. shï for dak, Heb. selagh 'rock'; ch, s, r all from d. Radical k dropped in the Mongol form; Heb. 8 prefixed.

Usu 'water,' Eng. water, Gr. hudor, Ger. wasser ; s from t.

Muren large river,' mare, mere, W. môr 'sea.' Ogaho wash,' chiyal washing, Eng. wash, Ger. waschen, Ch. yok.

Manai 'our,' Eng. mine, Manchu mini.

Gal' fire,' calor, caleo ‘hot,' ardeo, W. gwres 'heat.' The Celtic form retains the lost initial g of the Latin ardeo. Eng. glow, Ch. hwo for kat.

Gotol boot,' caliga shoe,' Dan. skoe. The English sh is from sk, and the k is a prefix. Ch. hiue for kit boot,' hiai for gat 'shoe.'

Hebeg 'chaff,' Eng. chaff; ch for k, h for k, f for b.

Butogehu 'finish, complete,' baraho 'to end,' barasi an end.' Chinese pa for bat end.' Eng. full. L for d; Lat. finis; n for t.

Metu ‘manner,' Lat. modus, Eng. mode, Ch. mo for mot.

REMARKS.-The Celtic has been the chief guardian of the lost initial g of the Latin and Teutonic stems. But those stems themselves have retained

examples sufficient to prove its former existence. The yewesen of Platt-deutsch is gewesen in High German. In English, guard is older than its "alter ego" ward. The g is frequently dropped in Mongol and in Chinese words. Consult in Morrison's Syllabic Dictionary or in Callery the syllables hwei and wei, hwun and yuen, etc. This law began its operation before they separated from the European stems.

I am convinced myself that the Mongol and Chinese vocabularies are in their entireness, identical with those of Europe. The above list of examples may be prolonged indefinitely.

J. EDKINS, B. A., Peking.