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grammatical forms of the old language which have ceased to be intelligible to the general reader.

It is important to observe that this process is going on at the present day. A tendency to divest itself of old grammatical forms and to assimilate itself more and more to the colloquial language can be clearly traced in the modern popular literature, and the natural result is that its grammar is in a state of utter confusion. The rules and forms of the classical language have been discarded; and as yet the new ones have not been definitively fixed. In the compass of the same sentence even, there are often instances of a rule being in one place adhered to, and in another disregarded.

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The books which M. Turrettini has undertaken to translate afford numerous examples of this state of things. We shall take a few from the Tami no Nigiwai. At page 5 occurs the phrase ware koso kachi-tare (c'est moi qui ai gagne)." Here the rule that koso is followed at the end of the sentence by the forms of the verb ending in such as yuke, tabure, etc., is adhered to. At page 25 however, we find it followed by the conclusive form in the phrase ware ima koso jitsu-seri," 'It is now, and now, only that I have understood.' At page 34 again there is an instance of koso followed by the attributive form; "Sakura wo uyerareshi yuyeni koso iwori wo oshitsubusareshi," 'It was solely by his having planted the cherry-tree that he caused the ruin of his house.' In this last case, however, the probability is that the writer meant shi for the conclusive form, which in classical Japanese is ki, a termination now unintelligible to the unlearned.

Another example of the loose grammar of the author of the Tami no Nigiwa is the easy way in which he allows the conjunction to to follow

either the attributive or the conclusive form. In the classical language to always follows the conclusive form, and there are numerous places where this rule is observed. But at page 5 he has neglected it in the phrase "kano mochi wo tori te kui keru to ka ya," 99 6 we are told that he took that mochi and ate it.' Keru ought here to be keri.

There are numerous other examples of a similar kind in these pages, but the ungrammatical character of this section of Japanese literature is perhaps sufficiently illustrated by those we have adduced. In spite of its great intrinsic interest, we are inclined to think that the labours of European scholars would be more profitably directed to works where they will have to deal with a more definite grammar and a more regular style of composition.

M. Turrettini will pardon us if we now notice a few very excusable errors of interpretation into which he has fallen, and we assure him that we do so in no unfriendly spirit.

The first sentence of the preface runs thus: "Fude wo toreba, mono kakare, sakadzuki wo toreba, sake wo omou to ka ya," which M. Turrettini translates "Lorsque on prend un pinceau, n'est ce pas pour écrire? et lorsque on prend une tasse, ne pense-t-on pas au saké?" It was no doubt the expression to ka ya which puzzled him. To is the sign of quotation, ka is the interrogative particle, and ya is an exclamation. The full construction is to iu kotowaza aru ka ya, and the translation of the whole passage

will be: 'There is (if I mistake not) a proverb which says: When one takes up a pen, something is written; when one takes up a drinking-cup one thinks of sake.' M. Turrettini will do well to revise the other passages where this expression occurs, and especially a very different ending will be given to the story of "the Genius and the Scholar" if we translate "soku-za ni kono mono wo uchi-koroseshi to ka ya" not "se demanda s'il ne ferait pas périr aussitôt cet homme," but "we are told (if I remember rightly) that he killed this fellow on the spot."

M. Turrettini has probably never seen a Japanese clock, or he would have been at no loss to translate kakeru at page 12. Instead of a circular dial, a Japanese clock has a perpendicular plate, on which the hours are marked, and along which moves an index attached to the weight. In winding up the clock care must be taken to make the index ascend through exactly twenty-four hours. The young man in the story had 'wound up' (kakeru) the clock half an hour too much, of course it would be half an hour fast in the morning. M. Turrettini translates kakeru "suspendre," which is no doubt the usual meaning of the word, but inapplicable here.

At page 29, in the story of "the Ants and the Tiger," we suppose that "qu'on ne peut voir qu'en se baissant" is meant as a translation of chikaku wa miru beshi, The ants have just given an illustration of the adage, that union is strength, from the history of China. They then adduce themselves as an instance of the same truth, saying: "Chikaku wa waga tomogaru wo mirubeshi," ie., To take a nearer example, observe ourselves.' The force of wa in marking the opposition between the remote and near illustration is so well marked here that we are surprised that the sense of this passage has been missed.

The punctuation of the Japanese version, we are sorry to say, is very unsatisfactory, A first step to improve it would be to abandon altogether the punctuation of the Japanese original, but much more than this is needed. A number of the errors are doubtless owing to a desire to subdivide some of the excessively long sentences, so common in Japanese, but many of them cannot be ascribed to this cause.

In justice to M. Turrettini it should be added that the errors we have noticed detract but little from the value of these translations as presenting a lively picture of manners and customs in Japan, and that all who take an interest in that very interesting country will feel obliged to him for his additions to the small number of translations from the Japanese accessible to Europeans.

W. G. ASTON, M.A.

Correspondence, &c.

6. I should be glad if any of your readers could give me any information about Chinese seals found in Ireland. I have a short treatise on the subject published in Belfast, but the notices contained in it are extremely meagre. The title runs thus :— [Notices of Chinese Seals found in Ireland. EDMUND GETTY, M.R.I.A. Dublin: Hodges & Smith. Belfast: Marcus Ward. 1850.] W. G. A.

Printed and Published at 3, George Yard Lombard Street, London.

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No. 20. FEBRUARY, 1872.

REMARKS ON COMMERCE BY KATO SUKEICHI. Translated from the Japanese

By W. G. ASTON, Esq., M. A.

Great Japan, ruled by our wise Emperors, is superior to all other countries in the world. It has a moderate climate, and there are no intolerable extremes of heat or cold. Therefore trees and herbs grow luxuriantly, rice, wheat, and all kinds of grain are produced in abundance, and rape, radishes, and other vegetables attain a great size. The tea plant and silk were originally introduced from China, but by reason of the goodness of the Japanese soil, their cultivation has been even more successful here than in their native country, where our teas and silks are highly valued. This fact alone is sufficient to prove the goodness of the Japanese soil. It cannot be said that there are not in China and Europe countries which enjoy as good a climate as Japan, but then they contain deserts or bare ranges of mountains extending for hundreds of miles, and rendering wide regions unfit for cultivation, or else the crops are inferior, owing to some noxious quality in the soil. In Japan there are no such districts. It is true that in Dewa, Oshiu, and other provinces there are wide plains which remain uncultivated, but this is not on account of the barrenness of the soil. They lie waste because the inhabitants are few in number and insufficient for the labour of reclaiming them. That such should be the case is no more than might be expected, seeing that there is sufficient food and clothing for the inhabitants without bringing these remote districts under cultivation. Nor are the mountains of Japan so high as to shut out the light of the sun and render agriculture impossible. On the contrary, from their sides are dug gold and silver, copper and iron, in sufficient quantity to supply the wants of the nation. In truth, Japan is the very finest country on the face of the globe.

Japan is, as it were, an island, separated from the adjoining countries by a wide expanse of ocean. That it should contain within itself everything in sufficient quantity for the needs of the inhabitants must have been a special gift of the Creator himself. Such being the case, we do not need to provide ourselves with anything from abroad, nor have we any reason to envy foreign countries. The consequence is that the hearts of the people being free from care and gloom are naturally, and without teaching, observant of the laws of decorum and virtue, and are unconsciously in accordance with all that is good. In China and other countries, prophets and sages have appeared from time to time who have zealously instructed the people, but in spite of this, it has often happened that princes have been murdered, and their dominions become the spoil of others. The strong, too, have preyed upon the weak, which is conduct worthy of beasts only. Deeds of such a nature must spring from the mutual

desire for plunder, which is stirred up when countries, though supplied with food, are insufficiently provided with the other necessaries of life. But our own Japan, ruled since its very creation by an uninterrupted line of Emperors, has never failed in the observance of the duties of prince and subject throughout the countless ages which have since elapsed. This is an irrefragable proof of the natural richness of our country, and of the goodness of the race of men which inhabits it, and the assertion that Japan excels all other countries is by no means to be counted an idle boast. What a glorious destiny it is to have been born in the noblest country on the face of the earth, where the great duties of life are practised unconsciously, and where the inhabitants are without exertion, warmly clothed, and plentifully nourished from the produce of the soil.

We have now entered into friendly relations with the countries beyond the sea, and their subjects are incessantly visiting Japan: we have become acquainted with the character of the natives of each, and are able to compute the amount of its productions, but among the 3,000 countries of the world, there is none which excels Japan. A foreigner resident at Yokohama once said, "Take any of the best seaports in the world, if there is a simultaneous competition, some articles of produce will soon be exhausted, but here at Yokohama all nations have been competing with one another ever since the port was opened, and yet there is not the least sign of exhaustion. It would be difficult to find anywhere else in the world a seaport where produce comes to market all the more plentifully the more it is bought." This was about five years ago, but now the trade has increased tenfold, and there is not a month in which transactions do not take place to the amount of 2,000,000 rios. Truly Japan is the very first among the fine countries of the world!

But as I said before, though we who have been born in such an excellent country, have no need to go abroad for our supplies, and have quite sufficient for our wants without trading with foreigners, there are, nevertheless good reasons why our country, though it wants for nothing, should maintain commercial relations. For instance, even within the limits of Japan some provinces produce rice and other grain in abundance, whilst others are unsuited for their cultivation. Some provinces produce gold, silver, copper, and iron, whilst in others these metals are not found. And the same is the case with silk, cotton, and other products; in some provinces they can be cultivated, in others not. Nevertheless, in those provinces which are unsuited for the production of any articles, there is not any deficiency on that account, for a means is at hand of supplying the wants of the inhabitants. This is accomplished by a mutual exchange of what is superfluous for what is deficient, a process which is founded in mutual principles of truth and justice, A rio is an ounce' of silver.

and is in fact a form of mutual help. Mutual help is the true principle by which human actions should be guided, and ought never to be forgotten or abandoned. It may be said, "Here is a man whose food is the result of the labour of his own hands, and whose clothing is the produce of his own loom; he requires no exchange, as he has already everything he needs in sufficient quantity for his support. But the iron for the pot or pan in which he boils his rice, as well as for making the mattock or spade with which he tills the ground, does not spring up from the soil of his farm, and he must part with either his rice or his cloth in order to procure it; by which we may see how absolutely necessary a thing is commerce."

In ancient times, foreign vessels were only allowed to come to Nagasaki, the reason of which was that it was feared they might invade our country. Since then, however, foreign countries have become more and more civilized, and have invented things called steam-vessels, which are provided with machinery by which they can in one day run 100 or even 200 ri, and can without difficulty come to Japan. Our Mikado has become convinced of the necessity of upholding the policy of commercial relations, and has caused our friendly intercourse and trade with foreign countries to be established on a liberal scale. This is the only course by which we can take our place in the community of nations, and remain true to natural principles of truth and justice.

In one sense there is nothing with which our country is not sufficiently supplied. Still the drugs for the cure of diseases, which have been from aucient times imported from China, are in high estimation; and machinery, an article of European manufacture, is exceedingly ingenious, and serves many important purposes. It is true that we could do perfectly well without these articles, but it cannot be denied, that so far as they go, they are both useful and instructive. Besides, if we made no use of the surplus produce of our country, it would decay and be lost, whereas, when it is exported, we supply strangers with what they stand in need of, and thus fulfil the duty of benevolence, whilst we reap an advantage at the same time for our own country. Some of our staples for which there is a demand abroad, such as, for instance, silkworms' eggs are produced in unlimited quantities, and only require to be prepared for market. If not so prepared, they are simply thrown away. Such being the case, what better can be done than to make them ready for market, and turn them to our country's profit. Industry, too, will be encouraged by the present prospect of gain. The same remarks will apply to silk and tea. Upon the news of these articles fetching a good price, the mulberry-tree and tea-shrub are planted even on the untilled borders of the fields, and as these are things that can be attended to at intervals of leisure, waste land is gradually brought under culture, and the people apply themselves strenuously to their avocations. By industry they are kept employed, and their household circumstances are improved. Thus are motives to crime removed, and lawsuits rendered

unfrequent. These are the blessings of a profitable commerce. The inhabitants of provinces at a distance from the centres of trade, who have never given much attention to these arguments, look upon foreigners as enemies, and lay to the charge of commerce the distress which is caused by high prices. This is a great error. Some countries are peopled with good, others with inferior races, but foreigners are, after all, natives of the same universe as ourselves, and human nature is everywhere the same. But the rise in prices is not owing to foreigners; it is owing to the fall in value of gold and silver. For example, the coin we now call twelve cash was at one time current as one cash. But an article which now costs twelve cash would certainly have cost more than one cash formerly, perhaps four or five cash, so that as this article can now be bought with a coin which was once worth only one cash, we make a wonderfully cheap bargain. Prices are governed by natural laws. They depend on a comparison of one thing with another, and a decision that neither is inferior or superior in value to the other. Whether we say one cash or twelve cash, one rio or three rios, it is the same thing in reality, only the expression we make use of now is different from what we used formerly. If we say that a thing is dear because it now costs three rios, that it was cheap because it cost only one, we forget that if we put in one scale of the balance the present three rios, and in the other what was formerly called one rio, the latter will be found heavier by three fun and six rin. So it is only fair that we should have to pay three rios now for an article which once cost only one, and no rise in price has really taken place. Let these arguments be well considered, and the erroneous notion that the rise in prices is owing to foreigners be at once corrected: one rio, three rios, are mere names; if the real values of things are looked to, they will be found the same now as formerly.

Let us now consider the manner in which trade is conducted. In the first place, foreigners have visited the various countries of the world, and having had long experience in trade, are very shrewd speculators. Then they have associations called corporations, companies, etc. The advantage of this system is, that when, say, 1,000 rios are required for any purpose, each of 1,000 merchants subscribes one rio, and so the sum needed is made up without any difficulty. There are, it is true, trading associations among our merchants, but they are very different in their constitution from the "companies of foreign countries. Japanese Mercantile Associations are perfectly useless; they are formed solely with the object of injuring the trade, and thwarting the promising ventures of other merchants embarked in the same line of business. Amongst the members of the associations, mutual assistance is never thought of; each one pursues his own business according to his means; no matter how promising an opening presents itself to a merchant with a capital say of 1,000 rios, his ventures must be limited to that amount, and his transactions are restricted proportionally. Foreign Mercantile Associations are very liberally constituted, and as they must

all receive the sanction of the Government, nothing can be changed on private authority. Thus a durable system is established, and immense profits are realized. Now that Japan has entered into commercial relations with foreign countries, our merchants also must adopt this system of companies.

Most of the so-called companies hitherto established in Japan have been formed by persons following the same business combining and petitioning the authorities; but as they were often perverted to the furtherance of private interests and the detriment of the public, they were some years ago all broken up at the same time. At present, however, there is every reason to believe that any petition to be allowed to form companies after the European model, will, if presented to the proper authorities, be favourably received as a proposal eminently conducive to the prosperity of the people of Japan. There is nothing to prevent such associations from being durably established.

When once the company system has been properly established, and trading operations have become gradually extended by means of it, it will be advisable with the profits to build large ships, in which to go to foreign countries to trade. By this means a profit will be realized tenfold that of a trade at our own doors. The reason of this is that things become dear in proportion to the number of hands they pass through. Take, for example, a fish. The sea produces it gratis, but then it must be caught by the fisherman and brought to market. The fisherman sells it for a few tempos. From the fishmonger it passes into the hands of the hawker, who either disposes of it to small dealers, or hawks it about the streets. So before it comes to the table the fish must pass through several persons' hands, each of whom has a commission upon it. In this way one tai costs at least as much as three bus or one rio, whereas if bought directly from the fisherman it would come very cheap. Trading with foreigners at our own doors is like buying a tai for one rio, but going to foreign countries and making our purchases there is like buying directly from the fisherman, and getting for ten tempos what, in the other case costs one rio. Even allowing for the expenses of the voyage there and back, the profits will undoubtedly be very large as the goods will not pass through so large a number of hands. It will, however, be advisable in carrying out this plan of going abroad to trade, to have also companies of merchants to reside in foreign countries for the purpose of giving mutual information of current prices and such like matters. If this be not attended to, little profit will be made. A Yedo merchant, for example, comes to Osaka or Kioto with a large stock of goods. If he has not made previous arrangements and associated himself with some merchants of Osaka or Kioto, he will be glad to return to Yedo, after selling his goods at a sacrifice from want of proper facilities for disposing of them. In the case of foreign countries, it will be still more essential to render mutual assistance, for without it a proper trade cannot be carried on; therefore a residence abroad must form part of the system.

Japan was for many years closed to foreigners, and no intercourse with them was allowed. The outside world was no concern to us, and by mutual assistance, we were sufficiently supplied with every thing necessary. This was a quiet, easy mode of existence, to be compared to that of a hermit in some beautiful spot remote in the wilderness, or hidden among the mountains. The pleasures of the lover of nature's hills and streams are no doubt deep and satisfying, but without some knowledge of what passes in the world, he will spend his life ill provided with the most necessary utensils. He will see no beautiful colours, nor hear any pleasant sounds, his clothing will be coarse, and his food inferior. It may be urged that it matters little if a man wears coarse clothes and eats coarse victuals, so long as he chooses to do so, and that his mind is all the easier for doing so. Such reasoning might have been accepted a hundred years ago. But now times have changed. European countries have gradually become civilized; and thanks to the machines they have constructed, a voyage of 1,000 ri is to them like visiting one's neighbour, intercourse at an interval of 1,000 ri is like conversing together face to face. In a world where free intercourse is making such rapid strides, Japan alone must not be left behind. The development of commerce is in obedience to a great law of nature, and in its course can be neither delayed nor arrested. In accordance with this principle of developing and extending commerce, we must abandon our old habits of seclusion, and acquire a desire for mixing with the world. In our relations with the world at large, it is first of all necessary that our intercourse should be of a friendly and intimate characNext, unlike a solitude among the mountains, we shall have strangers to visit us, and can no longer content ourselves with a house raised on bamboo posts and roofed with thatch, nor be satisfied without other clothes than those soiled by every day use. We must also have a greater show of household furniture than is actually necessary for our wants. As the expense of this extra furniture will be supplied from the profits of trade, it will cause us no labour. But although wearing good clothes, living in good houses, and improving the mind by extending our sphere of observation and knowledge are lifelong blessings, yet without skill in commerce they cannot be obtained. Such being the case, those who contend for old-fashioned ideas, and do not devote themselves to trade, understand neither the times we live in nor the laws of nature. We may safely set them down as blockheads. They adapt their clothing to the seasons of the year, and wear in summer a single, and in winter a double, garment, yet the same people will not adapt their ideas to the new relations into which our country has entered. Let us at once enter heart and mind into the pursuits of commerce, and that we may not be ashamed before foreign nations, provide ourselves amply with such superfluous articles as I have referred to, keeping always in view the advantage of our country.

ter.

(To be continued.)

A MONTH IN MONGOLIA.

Continued from page 115.

Of

About one li's walk brought us to the gate of the palace walls, which are well built of unhewn stone, and crenelated with brick. The grounds are on an eminence, from which the city can be commanded. The soldiers there told us that we could not enter, but could see the Tsungtu or general, whose yamen or office was not far off. Thither we wended, and on the way got a magnificent view of the town in the valley below, hemmed in by snow-covered hills. It is a very large city, without walls, and must contain some quarter of a million of inhabitants. It turned out that we had come to the Chih-fu, or governor's residence, so we were again directed to the other end of the town, followed by a crowd, at the head of which we marched, and out of which we selected a needy-looking rogue to shew us the way for 100 cash. Ile kept faith for a mile or so, when on turning round, we found him gone and the crowd grinning at our discomfiture. One showing the greatest number of teeth was at once clutched by the tail and ordered to show us the way. course he was a stranger in the place and did not know. On turning round however, we saw "Tsung kwan offices" stuck upon a door, and walked in. Here we were told by the underlings that the "tajin” was not there but at the other office, not far off, but none would shew us the way. Outside was an official with gold buttons, and he said there was no such officer. Others said we must go south, and when south we were told to go east, then north, west, and so on. We now had nothing for it but to go home, and commission the boy under penalty of three dollars fine in default to find out the general and give him our cards. I had forgotten my christian or rather family name, and was about to manufacture one, when Chang-erh recollected that I answered to the name of Po-yen-lin, or 'Pearly Forest of Cypresses.' Whilst he was away Andrews, followed by half the street, went to buy a sheepskin, whilst the other half amused themselves by watching me wash and dress, or poking holes through the paper-windows. Chang-erh said that he could not see the Mandarin, and the clerks said we could not enter the palace; further, he brought word that we must not go to Tang-tsaiying, the royal hunting grounds. We gave up going to the palace in despair, but his message only had the effect of causing us to order the carter to prepare starting for Tang-tsai-ying to-morrow as allowed by treaty. We then repaired to a po-po shop and bought 600 cash worth of delicious sponge cakes, macaroons, etc., which equal ours; winding up with a good dinner, and bed. This is a fair example of how one is cheated by Chinese, who however, are so good humoured and comic, and they are always the same even when we beat them. They estimate Europeans intentions and minds by their own standard, suspecting us to be spies, but invariably placing the fullest confidence in us when once known. The fact is when treated properly, that is beaten, ordered about and bullied generally, but paid fairly, they are a goodnatured, active, polite and pleasing people, but when put on an equal

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Our next stage was to Shih-pa-t'ai (second place of that name,) nominally ninety li from Jeh-ho but as it turned out 120 at least. This day, November 24th, we did not get the cart away until ten o'clock, a bad beginning to the day. Immediately on leaving the town the gate of the Emperor's porch had to be passed on each side, two or three yards away was a marble slab, with, in Manchu, Mongol, and

Chinese, the inscription 官員人等此

Tkwan-yüan-jên, têng ts'z, chih hsia

ma 'officers must wait here and dismount,' a a lot of officials rushed forward vociferating that we must get down, which to their horror we declined to do. Then we emerged on a valley-plain, the prettiest (artificially speaking) I have seen in China. For about a mile on the left ran the wall of the Imperial grounds, then parallel to it rows of yü's (probably sycamores). The road ran parallel again to it and the river Yesu or Yesu-ho, a rapid flowing river, lined with ice and running to the town. About two or three li off, at the foot of the hills on the right, was a fine lofty edifice almost concealed by trees; what it was exactly I could not make out, but it is part of the Emperor's grounds, though outside the wall. Above is a peculiar rock, like an engine. Straight ahead, slightly to the left, where the park-wall ran over a hill, a very fine pagoda, in good repair, of nine stories (they are always of an odd number) stood out in bold relief from among the shrubs in front of the hillock; it cannot have been less than 120 feet high, if not more. At the extreme end of the valley towards which we were going, was the Imperial temple of Buddha, a most imposing pile of buildings, with what is a very rare sight, except in pagodas, several fine stories. The colouring about all these in true Chinese fashion is very gay. Yellow tiles betoken "Imperial," green "Imperial family or "Illustrious," blue Prince of the Blood." The ordinary houses are dull mouse colour.

The frost and snow of the previous night was turned into mud and slush by the melting sun, and it was rather strange, occasionally when under the shade of a hill to launch suddenly from dirt into solid ice, and the moment the sun peeped out again back into slush. It was very hard work for the horses, and the two unfortunate mules too, owing to our starting late had to do the whole journey without stopping. Before leaving the valley mentioned, Andrews saw a large pile of magnificent buildings as we were riding past a gap, which he judged were palaces. They had escaped my view, and as we had no time to spare we had to postpone seeing them till our return to Jeh-ho. At Kau-tszta'i, fifty li from Jeh-ho, we overtook the cart, and getting out tea and bread, sent it on, whilst we took a tiffin at the inn. The good-folk here were very simple, and had but few of them ever seen foreigners. As even in Peking we always do, we took our lunch and smoked, before a crowd

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