frequent; but cases are found of every variety. Examples are devāví, vayunāvíd, prāvis, ṛtāvasu, indrāvant, sadanāsád, çatámagha, viçvánara, ékadaça; apijú, parīṇáh, virúdh, tuvimaghá, tvíṣimant, çûktīvant; vasūjú, anurúdh, sūmáya, purūvásu. 248. In the Veda, the final vowel of a word generally a, much less often i and u is in a large number of cases prolonged. Usually the prolongation takes place where it is favored by the metre, but sometimes even where the metre opposes the change (for details, see APr. iii. 16 note, Benfey, Abh. Gött. Ges. xix.-xxi. [1874—6], and the various Prātiçākhyas). Words of which the finals are thus treated are: a. Particles: namely, úthā, ádhā, evá, utá, ghấ, hũ, ihá, ivā, cā, smā, añgá, kílā, átrā, yátrā, tátrā, kútrā, anyútrā, ubhayútrā, adyá, áchā, apā, prá; yúdì, nahí, abhí; ũ, tú, nú, sú, makṣú. b. Case-forms: especially instr. sing., as ená, ténā, yénā, svénā, and others; rarely gen. sing., as asyā, hariņásyā. Cases besides these are few: so símā (voc.); tanvi (loc.), and urú and (not rarely) purú. c. Verb-forms ending in a, in great number and variety: thus (nearly in the order of their comparative frequency), 2d sing. impv. act., as pibā, syā, gamayā; 2d pl. act. in ta and tha, as sthā, attā, bibhṛtā, jayatā, cṛṇutā, anadatā, nayathā, jīvayathā (and one in tana: aviṣṭanā); 1st pl. act. in ma, as vidmā, riṣāmā, ṛdhyāmā, ruhemā, vanuyāmā, cakṛmā, marmṛjmā; 2d sing. impv. mid. in sva, as yukṣvā, īḍiṣvā, dadhiṣvā, vahasvā; 1st and 3d sing. perf. act., as vedā, viveçā, jagrabhā; 2d sing. perf. act., vettha; 2d pl. perf. act., anajā, cakrā. Of verb-forms ending in i, only the 2d sing. impv. act., as crudhī, çṛṇuhī, dīdihī, jahī. - To these may be added the gerund in ya, as abhigúryā, άcyā. Vowel-lightening. 249. The alteration of short a to ani or u-vowel in the formative processes of the language, except in r or ar roots (as explained above), is a sporadic phenomenon only. 250. But the lightening of a long a especially to an i-vowel (as also its loss), is a frequent process: no other vowel is so unstable. a. Of the class-sign nā (of the kri-class of verbs: chap. IX.), the a is in "weak" forms changed to i, and before vowel-endings dropped altogether. The final a of one or two roots is treated in the same manner: thus mā, hā. And from some roots, ā and ī or i-forms so interchange that it is difficult to classify them or to determine the true character of the root. b. Radical a is weakened to the semblance of the union-vowel i in certain verbal forms: as perfect dadima from ydā etc.; aorist adhithās from Vdhā etc.; present jahimas from Vha etc. c. Radical a is shortened to the semblance of stem-a in a number of reduplicated forms, as tistha, piba, dada, etc.: see chap. IX.; also in a few aorists, as áhvam, ákhyam, etc.: see chap. XI. d. Radical ā sometimes becomes e, especially before y: as, stheyāsam, deya. 251. Certain ā-roots, because of their peculiar exchanges with i and i-forms, especially in forming the present stem, are given by the Hindu grammarians as roots ending in e or ai or o. Thus, from 2 dhā 'suck' (dhe) come the present dhúyati and participle and gerund dhitá, dhītvá; the other forms are made from dhā, as dadhus, adhāt, dhāsyati, dhátave, dhāpayati. From 2gā 'sing' (gai) come the present gáyati, the participle and gerund gitá and gītvá, and passive giyúte, and the other forms from gā. From 3dā 'cut' (do) come the present dyúti and participle ditá or diná, and the other forms from dā. The irregularities of these roots will be treated below, under the various formations. 252. By a process of abbreviation essentially akin with that of ar or ra tor, the va (usually initial) of a number of roots becomes u, and the ya of a much smaller number becomes i, in certain verbal forms and derivatives. Thus, from vac come uváca, ucyásam, uktvá, uktá, uktí, ukthá, etc.; from yaj come iyája, ijyásam, istvá, istá, ísti, etc. See below, under the various formations. To this change is generally given by European grammarians the name of samprasāraṇa, by adaptation of a term used in the native grammar. 253. A short a, of root or ending, is not infrequently lost between consonants in a weakened syllable: thus, in verb-forms, ghnánti, úpaptam, jagmús, jajñús, újñata; in noun-forms, rájñe, rájñì. 254. Union-vowels. All the simple vowels come to assume in certain cases the aspect of union-vowels, or insertions between root or stem and ending of inflection or of derivation. That character belongs oftenest to i, which is very widely used: a. before the s of aorist and future and desiderative stems, as in ájīviṣam, jīviṣyámi, jíjīviṣāmi; b. in tense-inflection, especially perfect, as jijīvimā; occasionally also present, as ániti, róditi; c. in derivation, as jīvitá, khánitum, janitṛ, rocisnú, etc. etc. Long i is used sometimes instead of short: thus, ágrahīṣam, grahīṣyámi; bravīti, vāvadīti; tarīt?, savītṛ; it is also often introduced before s and t of the 2d and 3d sing. of verbs: thus, ásīs, ásīt. For details respecting these, and the more irregular and sporadic occurrences of u and a-vowels in the same character, see below. Nasal Increment. 255. Both in roots and in endings, a distinction of stronger and weaker forms is very often made by the presence or absence of a nasal element, mute or anusvāra, before a following consonant. In general, the stronger form is doubtless the more original; but in the present condition of the language, the nasal has come in great measure to seem, and to some extent also to be used, as an actually strengthening element, introduced under certain conditions in formative and inflective processes. Examples are, of roots: ac and añc, grath and granth, vid and vind, daç and danç, sras and srans, dṛh and dṛnh: of endings, bhárantam and bharatā, mánasi and múnānsi. 256. A final n, whether of stem or of root, is less stable than any other consonant, where a weaker form is called for: thus, from rajan we have rájū and rajabhis, and in composition rāja; from dhanín, dhani and dhaníbhis and dhani; from Vhan we have hathά and hatá, etc. A final radical m m does not occur as final of a stem) is sometimes treated in the same way: thus, from Vgam, gahí, gatúm, gatú, gáti. 257. Inserted n. On the other hand, the nasal n has come to be used with great and, in the later history of the language, with increasing frequency as a union-consonant, inserted between vowels: thus, from agní, agnínā and agnīnām; from múdhu, mádhunas, mádhuni, mádhūni; from çivú, çivéna, çiváni, çivánām. 258. Inserted y. After long, a y is not very infrequently found as apparently a mere union-consonant before another vowel: thus, in derivation, yāyín, svadhūyín, dháyas, sthayuka; in inflection, údhūyi, çāyāyati, and perhaps civáyās and gáyati. Reduplication. 259. Reduplication of a root (originating doubtless in its complete repetition) has come to be a method of radical increment or strengthening in various formative processes: namely, a. in present-stem formation: as dádāmi, bibhármi; b. in aorist-stem formation: as ádidharam, ácucyavam; c. in perfect-stem formation, almost universally as tatana, dadhaú, cakára; d. in intensive and desiderative-stem formation, throughout as jáñghanti, jóhaviti, marmṛjyáte, pipāsati, jighānsati; e. in the formation of derivative noun-stems : as púpri, cárcara, sasahi, cikitú, malimlucá. Rules for the treatment of the reduplication in these several cases will be given in the proper connection below. 260. As, by reason of the strengthening and weakening changes indicated above, the same root or stem not seldom exhibits, in the processes of inflection and derivation, varieties of stronger and weaker form, the distinction and description of these varieties forms an important part of the subjects hereafter to be treated. CHAPTER IV. DECLENSION. 261. THE general subject of declension includes nouns, adjectives, and pronouns, all of which are inflected in essentially the same manner. But while the correspondence of nouns and adjectives is so close that they cannot well be separated in treatment, the pronouns, which exhibit many peculiarities, will be best dealt with in a separate chapter; and the words designating number, or numerals, also form a class peculiar enough to require to be presented by themselves. 262. Declensional forms show primarily case and numher; but they also indicate gender since, though the distinctions of gender are made partly in the stem itself, they also appear, to no inconsiderable extent, in the changes of inflection. 283. Gender. The genders are three, namely masculine, feminine, and neuter, as in the other older Indo-European languages; and they follow in general the same laws. of distribution as, for example, in Greek and Latin. The only words which show no sign of gender-distinction are the personal pronouns of the first and second person (along with the numerals above 'four': chap. VI.). 264. Number. The numbers are three dual, and plural. singular, A few words are used only in the plural: as dūrās, 'wife', ápas, 'water'; the numeral dva, 'two', is dual only; and, as in other languages, many words are, by the nature of their use, found to occur only in the singular. 265. As to the uses of the numbers, it needs only to be remarked that the dual is found without the addition of the numeral dva, 'two', wherever the duality of the objects spoken of is a thing well understood: thus, açvināu, 'the two (horsemen) Açvins'; indrasya hári, 'Indra's (two) bays'; devadattasya hastau, Devadatta's two hands'; but devadattasya dvāv açvāu staḥ, 'Devadatta has two horses'. 266. Case. The cases are (including the vocative) eight: nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative, and vocative. The order in which they are here mentioned is that established for them by the Hindu grammarians, and accepted from these by Western scholars. The Hindu names of the cases are founded on this order: the nominative is called prathamā, ‘first', the accusative dvitīyā, ‘second', the genitive sasthi, 'sixth' (sc. vibhakti, ‘division', i. e. 'case'), etc. The object sought in the arrangement is simply to set next to one another those cases which are to a greater or less extent, in one or another number, identical in form; and, putting the nominative first, as leading case, there is no other order by which that object could be attained. The vocative is not considered and named by the native grammarians as a case like the rest; in this work, it will be given in the singular (where alone it is ever distinguished from the nominative otherwise than by accent) at the end of the series of cases. A brief compendious statement of the uses of the cases is given in the following paragraphs: 267. Uses of the Nominative. The nominative is the case of the subject of the sentence, and of any word qualifying the subject, whether attributively, in apposition, or as predi cate. 268. As somewhat peculiar constructions may be mentioned a predicate nominative with manye etc., 'think one's self to be', and with bruve etc., 'call one's self: thus, sómam manyate papiván (RV.), 'he thinks he has been drinking soma'; sú manyeta purāṇavit (AV.), 'he may regard himself as wise in ancient things'; índro brāhmaṇó brúvānaḥ (TS.), 'Indra calling himself (pretending to be) a Brahman'; and with rupẩm kṛ: thus, kṛṣṇó rūpúṁ kṛtvá (making shape for himself as one that is (TS.), 'taking on a black form' black). 269. Uses of the Accusative. The accusative is especially the case of the direct object of a transitive verb, and of any word qualifying that object, as attribute or appositive or objective predicate. The construction of the verb is shared, of course, by its participles and infinitives; but also, in Sanskrit, by a number of other derivatives, having a more or less participial or infinitival character, and even sometimes by nouns and adjectives. A few prepositions are accompanied by the accusative. As more indirect object, the accusative is construed especially with verbs of approach and address. It is found used yet more adverbially as adjunct of place or time or manner; and a host of adverbs are accusative cases in form. Two accusatives are often found as objects of the same verb. 270. The use of the accusative as direct object of a transitive verb Whitney, Grammar. 6 |