genitive, which has, here as elsewhere (294), suffered an extension of its normal sphere of use.

1125. The adverbs by derivative form (1097 ff.) have least of a prepositional value (exceptions are especially a few made with the suffix tas: 1098).

Most of the verbal prefixes (exceptions are ud, ni, parā, pra: and ava and ni are almost such) have their prepositional or quasi-prepositional uses with cases; but much more widely in the older time than in the later in the classical language the usage is mainly restricted to prati, anu, and ā.

Most of the directive words akin with the more proper prefixes are used prepositionally some of them as saha, vinā, upari, antarā, purā freely, earlier and later.

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The case-forms used adverbially are in many instances used prepositionally also oftenest, as was to be expected, with the genitive; but frequently, and from an early time, with the accusative; more rarely with other cases.

We will take up now the cases for a brief exposition, beginning with those that are least freely used.

1126. The Locative. This case is least of all used with words that can claim the name of preposition. Of directives, antár and its later derivative antará, meaning 'within, in', are oftenest added to it, and in the classical language as well as earlier. Of frequent Vedic use with it are ā and adhi (illustrated above, 305); api and upa are much rarer: thus, yá apám ápi vraté [sánti] (RV.), 'who are in the domain of the waters'; amúr yá úpa súrye [súnti] (RV.), 'who are up yonder in the sun'; sácā, 'along with', is not rare in RV., but almost entirely unknown later: thus, pitróḥ súcā sati, 'staying with her parents'.

1127. The Instrumental. The directives used with this case are almost only those which contain the associative pronominal root sa: as saha (most frequent), sākam, sārdham, samam, samayū, saratham; and, in the Veda, the prefix sam: as, te sumatíbhiḥ sám pátnībhir ná vṛṣaṇo nasimahi (RV.), 'may we be united with thy favors as men with their spouses'. By substitution of the instrumental for the ablative of separation (283), vinā, 'without' (not Vedic), takes sometimes the instrumental; and so, in the Veda, avas, 'down', and paras, 'beyond', with which the ablative is also, and much more normally, construed. And adhi, in RV., is used with the instrumentals snúnā and snúbhis, where the locative would be expected.

1128. The Ablative. In the prepositional constructions of the ablative (as was pointed out and partly illustrated above, 293), the ablative value of the case, and the merely directive value of the added particle, are for the most part clearly to be traced. Many of the verbal prefixes are more or less frequently joined in the older language with this case: oftenest, adhi and pari; more sporadically, anu, apa, ava, prati, and the separatives nis and vi. The change of meaning of the ablative with a, hither', by which

it comes to fill the office of its opposite, the accusative, was sufficiently explained above (293 c). Of directive words akin with the prefixes, many as bahis, puras, avas, adhas, paras, purā, vinā, and tiras, 'out of knowledge of accompany this case by a perfectly regular construction. Also the case-forms arvāk, prāk, paçcāt, ūrdhvam, pūrvam, param, pareṇa, prabhṛti; and ṛte, without', of which the natural construction with an ablative is predominant earlier. Antikam, 'near', is said to take the ablative as well as its more normal companion the genitive.

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1129. The Accusative. Many of the verbal prefixes and related words take an accompanying accusative. Most naturally (since the accusative is essentially the 'to'-case), those that express a motion or action toward anything as abhi, prati, anu, upa, ā, ati and adhi in the sense of 'over on to' or across, beyond', tiras, 'through', antar and antarā when meaning 'between', pari, 'around'. Examples are: yaḥ pradíço abhí súryo vicáște (AV.), 'what quarters the sun looks abroad unto'; ábodhy agníḥ práty āyatím uṣásam (RV.), 'Agni has been awakened to meet the advancing dawn'; gached kadācit svajanam prati (MBh.), 'she might go somewhither to her own people'; imam prakṣyāmi nṛpatim prati (MBh.), 'him I will ask with reference to the king'; máma cittám ánu cittébhir é 'ta (AV.), 'follow after my mind with your minds'; é 'hy a naḥ (AV.), 'come hither to us'; úpa na é 'hy arván (RV.), 'come hither unto us'; yó devó mártyān áti (AV.), ‘the god who is beyond mortals'; adhiṣṭháya várcasá ́dhy anyán (AV.), 'excelling above others in glory'. Also abhitas and paritas, which have a like value with the simple abhi and pari; and upari, 'above' (oftener with genitive). Less accordant with ordinary accusative constructions is the use of this case with adhas, paras, puras, vinā, beside other cases which seem more suited to the meaning of those particles. And the same may be said of most of the adverbial case-forms with which the accusative is used. Thus, a number of instrumentals of situation or direction : as yé 'vareņā "dityúm, yé páreṇā "dityám (TB.), 'those who are below the sun, those who are beyond the sun'; ántareṇa yónim (CB.), 'within the womb'; te hi 'dam antarena sarvam (AB.), for all this universe is between them'; úttarena garhapatyam (CB.), 'to the north of the householder's fire'; dákṣiņena védim (ÇB.), to the south of the sacrificial hearth'; dakṣinena vṛkṣavāṭikām (Çak.), to the right of the orchard'; nikaṣá, 'near to'. Similarly, urdhvam and pūrvam have an accusative object as well as an ablative; and the same is true later of ṛte. Abhimukham, 'toward', has a more natural right to construction with this case; and samáyā (later samaya), 'through between', is analogous with antarā and tiras.

1130. The Genitive. The words which are accompanied by the genitive are mostly case-forms of nouns, or of adjectives used substantively, retaining enough of the noun-character to take this case as their natural adjunct. Such are the locatives agre, in front of', abhyāçe, ‘near', arthe and kṛte, 'for the sake of', nimitte and hetāu, 'by reason of', madhye, 'in the midst of; and other cases, as artham and arthāya, antikam and abhimukham (which have also other constructions), kūraṇāt, sakāçāt, hetos. And really, although

less directly and obviously, of the same character are other adjective cases (some of them showing other constructions, already noticed): as adharena, uttarena and uttarāt, dakṣinena and dakṣiņāt, paçcāt, urdhvam, anantaram, samakṣam, sākṣāt. More questionable, and illustrations rather of the general looseness of use of the genitive, are its constructions (almost wholly unknown in the oldest language) with more proper words of direction: thus, with the derivative paritas, paratas, and antitas, and parastāt and purastāt (these found in the Brāhmaṇa language: as, saṁvatsarasya parastāt, ‘after a year'; sūktasya purastát, 'before the hymn' [AB.]); with anti, adhas, avas, puras; with upari, 'above' (common later); and with antar.

Conjunctions.

1131. The conjunctions, also, as a distinct class of words, are almost wanting.

The combination of clauses is in Sanskrit in general of a very simple character; much of what in other Indo-European languages is effected by subordinating conjunctions is here managed by means of composition of words, by the use of the gerunds (994), and of iti (1102a), and so on.

1132. The relative derivative adverbs, already given (1098 ff.), may properly be regarded as conjunctions; and a few other particles of kindred value, as ced and ned (1111a). 1133. Purely of conjunctive value are ca, ‘and', and vā, ‘or' (both toneless, and never having the first place in a sentence or clause).

Of copulative value, along with ca, is in the older language especially utá (later it becomes a particle of more indefinite use); and api, tatas, tathā, kim ca, with other particles and combinations of particles, are used often as connectives of clauses.

Adversative is tú, but' (rare in the older language); also, less strongly, u (toneless).

Of illative value is hi, 'for' (originally, and in great part at every period, asseverative only): compare above, 1122 a.

To ca (as well as to its compound céd) belongs occasionally the meaning 'if'. It is needless to enter into detail with regard to those uses which may be not less properly, or more properly, called conjunctive than adverbial, of the particles already given, under the head of Adverbs.

Interjections.

1134. The utterances which may be classed as interjections are, as in other languages, in part voice-gestures,

Whitney, Grammar.

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in part onomatopoeias, and in part mutilations and corruptions of other parts of speech.

1135. a. Of the class of voice-gestures are, for example: ā, hā, hāhā, ahaha, he, hai (AV.), ayi, aye, hayé (RV.), aho, bát (RV.), bata (RV.) or vata, and (probably) hiruk and hurúk (RV.).

b. Onomatopoetic or imitative utterances are, for example (in the older language): ciçcá, 'whiz' (of an arrow: RV.); kikirá (palpitation: RV.); bál and phát (phás?) or phál, 'splash' (AV.); bhúk, 'bow-wow' (AV.); çál, 'pat' (AV.); āṣ, hiş, as, and has (PB.); and see the words already quoted in composition with the roots kṛ and bhū, above, 1091.

c. Nouns and adjectives which have assumed an interjectional character are, for example: bhos (for the vocative bhavas, 456); are or re (voc. of ari, 'enemy'); dhik, ‘alas!' (may be mere voice-gesture, but perhaps related with Vdih); kastam, 'woe is me!' distya, 'thank heaven!' svasti, 'hail!' susthu, sadhu, 'good, excellent!' None of these are Vedic in interjectional use.

CHAPTER XVII.

DERIVATION OF DECLINABLE STEMS.

1136. THE formation from roots of conjugable stems namely, tense-stems, mode-stems, and stems of secondary conjugation (not essentially different from one another, nor, it is believed, ultimately from the formation of declined stems) was most conveniently treated above, in the chapters devoted to the verb. Likewise the formation of adverbs by derivation (not essentially different from case-formation), in the chapter devoted to particles. And the formation of those declinable stems namely, of comparison, and of infinitives and participles — which attach themselves most closely to the systems of inflection, has also been more or less fully exhibited. But the extensive and intricate subject of the formation of the great body of declinable stems was best reserved for a special chapter.

Of course, only a brief and compendious exhibition of the subject can be attempted within the here necessary limits: no exhaustive tracing out of the formative elements of every period; still less, a complete statement of the varied uses of each element; least of all, a discussion of origins; but enough to help the student in that analysis of words which must form a part

of his labor from the outset, giving a general outline of the field, and preparing for more penetrating investigation.

The material from accented texts, and especially the Vedic material, will be had especially in view (nothing that is Vedic being intentionally left unconsidered); and the examples given will be, so far as is possible, words found in such texts with their accent marked. No word not thus vouched for will be accented unless the fact is specifically pointed out.

1137. The roots themselves, both verbal and pronominal, are used in their bare form, or without any added suffix, as declinable stems.

As to this use of verbal roots, see below, 1147.

The pronominal roots, so-called, are essentially declinable; and hence, in their further treatment in derivation, they are in accordance with other declinable stems, and not with verbal roots.

1138. Apart from this, every such stem is made by a suffix. And these suffixes fall into two general classes: A. Primary suffixes, or those which are added directly to roots;

B. Secondary suffixes, or those which are added to derivative stems (also to pronominal roots, as just pointed out, and sometimes to particles).

The division of primary suffixes nearly corresponds to the kṛt (more regular) and uṇādi (less regular) suffixes of the Hindu grammarians; the secondary, to their taddhita-suffixes.

1139. But this distinction, though one of high value, theoretically and practically, is not absolute. Thus:

a. Suffixes come to have the aspect and the use of primary which really contain a secondary element that is to say, the earliest words exhibiting them were made by addition of secondary suffixes to words already derivative.

Sundry examples of this will be pointed out below: thus, the gerundival suffixes, tavya, aniya, etc., the suffixes uka and aka, tra, and others. This origin is probable for more cases than admit of demonstration; and it is possible for others which show no distinct signs of composition.

b. Less often, a suffix of primary use passes over in part into secondary, through the medium of use with denominative "roots" or otherwise: examples are yu, iman, iyas and isṭha.

1140. Moreover, primary suffixes are added not only