verb is entitled to the tone, are too few to furnish more than a fragmentary illustration of the formation.

rule:

Out of such beginnings has grown in the later language the following

1094. Any noun or adjective stem is liable to be compounded with verbal forms or derivatives of the roots V kṛ and ✈ bhū (and, it is said, of as also; but such cases, if they occur, are at least extremely rare), in the manner of a verbal prefix. If the final of the stem be an a or i-vowel, it is changed to; if an u-vowel, it is changed to ऊ ū.

It is prescribed also that a final y become ri, and that as and an be changed to i; but no genuine examples appear to be quotable.

Examples are: stambhībhavati, 'becomes a post'; ekacittibhūya, 'becoming of one mind'; upahārīkaroṣi, 'thou makest an offering'; nakhaprahārajarjarīkṛta, 'torn to pieces with blows of the claws'; çithilibhavanti, 'become loose'; kundalikṛta, 'ring-shaped.'

1095. Of all the forms which constitute or are attached to the verbal system, the passive participle is the one most closely assimilated in its treatment as a combinable element to an ordinary adjective. Next to it come the gerund and the gerundives. Combinations of the kind here treated of are especially common with passive participles and gerunds.

CHAPTER XVI.

INDECLINABLES.

1096. THE indeclinable words are less distinctly divided into separate parts of speech in Sanskrit than is usual elsewhere in Indo-European language especially owing to the fact that the class of prepositions hardly has a real existence, but is represented by certain adverbial words which are to a greater or less extent used prepositionally. They will, however, be briefly described here under the usual heads.

Adverbs.

1097. Adverbs by Suffix. Classes of adverbs, sometimes of considerable' extent, are formed by the addition of adverb-making suffixes especially to pronominal roots or stems, but also to noun and adjective stems.

There is no ultimate difference between these suffixes and the caseendings in declension; and the adverbs of this division sometimes are used in the manner of cases.

1098. With the suffix tas are made adverbs having an ablative sense, and not rarely also an ablative construction. Such are made:

a. From pronominal roots, in átas, itás, tátas, yátas, kútas, amútas, svatas (not found earlier); and from the pronominal stems in t or d (494) of the personal pronouns: thus, mattás (only example in V.), tvattas, asmattas, yusmattas.

b. From noun and adjective stems of every class, since the earliest period, but more freely later: thus, mukhatás, agratás, ṛbhutás, hṛttás, çīrṣatás, nastás, yajuṣṭas, pārátas, anyátas, sarvátas, dakṣiņatás, abhīpatás (once, in RV., from a case-form: patsutás).

c. From a few prepositions: thus, abhitas, parítas, ántitas.

Examples of ablative construction are: tátaḥ sasthát (AV.), 'from that sixth'; táto jyāyān (AV.), 'older than they'; kutaç cid deçūd āgatya (H.), 'arriving from some region or other'.

But the distinctive ablative meaning is not infrequently effaced, and the adverb has a more locative value: thus, agratás, 'in front'; asmatsamipatas, 'in our presence'; dharmatas, 'in accordance with duty'; chāgatas (H.), 'with reference to the goat'.

1099. With the suffix tra (in V. often tra) are made adverbs having a locative sense, and occasionally also a locative construction.

These adverbs are formed from pronominal roots, namely átra, tátra, yátra, kútra, amútra, asmatrá, satrá; and also from noun and adjective stems, as anyátra, viçvátra, samānátra, martyatrá, dakṣiņatrá, devatrá, purutrá, bahutrá.

The words in (accented) trá are Vedic only, except satrá, ‘altogether' (of which satram is also given as an alternative form).

Examples of quasi-locative or locative construction are: hásta á dakṣiṇatrá (RV.), 'in the right hand'; tatrā 'ntare (H.), 'in that interval'; prabhutvaṁ tatra yujyate (H.), 'sovereignty is suited to him'; ekatra puruṣe (MBh.), ‘in a single man'.

As the locative case is used also to express the goal of motion (304), so the adverbs in tra have sometimes an accusative as well as a locative value: thus, tatra gacha, 'go there or thither'; pathó devatrá yánān (RV.), 'roads that go to the gods'.

1100. One or two other suffixes of locality are:

a. ha, in ihú, 'here', kúha, 'where?' and the Vedic viçváha (also viçváhā, viçváhā), 'always' (compare below, 1104, end).

b. tut, which is added to words having already a local or directive value: thus, to adverbial accusatives, as praktāt, údaktāt; to adverbial ablatives, as ūráttut, uttaráttāt, parākáttāt; and to prepositional adverbs, as adhústāt, avástāt, parástāt, purástāt, bahíṣṭāt. Apparently by analogy with these last, the suffix has occasionally the form stat: thus, upúriṣṭāt.

c. hi, in uttaráhi (ÇB.) and dakṣināhi (no occurrence).

1101. By the suffix tha are made adverbs of manner,

pecially from pronominal roots or stems.

es

Thus, táthā, yáthā; katha and ittha (by the side of which stand kathám and itthẩm); and the rare imáthā and amúthā. And átha (V. often áthā), 'so then', doubtless belongs with them. Further, from a few adjective and noun stems: as, viçváthā, sarváthā, anyáthā, ubhayáthā, itaráthū, yatamáthā, ūrdhváthā, ṛtuthấ, nāmáthā (once, AV.).

Yatha becomes usually toneless in V., when used in the sense of iva after a noun forming the subject of comparison: thus, tāyávo yathā (RV.), 'like thieves'.

1102. One or two other suffixes of manner are:

a. ti, in iti, "thus', very commonly used, from the earliest period, as particle of quotation, following the words quoted.

Examples are: brahmajāyé 'yám íti céd úvocan (RV.), if they have said "this is a Brahman's wife"; túm devá abruvan vrátya kím nú tiṣṭhasi 'ti (AV.), 'the gods said to him: "Vratya, why do you stand?" Often, the iti

is used more pregnantly: thus, yáḥ çraddádhāti sánti devá íti (AV.), 'whoever has faith that the gods exist'; tam vyaghram munir mūṣiko 'yam iti paçyati (H.), the sage looks upon that tiger as being really a mouse'; yuyaṁ kim iti sidatha (H.), 'why (lit'ly, alleging what reason) do you sit? Or the iti marks an onomatopeia, or indicates a gesture: thus, bahis te astu bál íti (AV.), 'let it come out of you with a "splash"'; íty ágre kṛṣaty áthé 'ti (ÇB.), 'he ploughs first this way, then this way'. A word made by iti logically predicate to an object is usually nominative: thus, svargó loká íti yám vádanti (AV.), 'what they call "the heavenly world"; vidarbharājatanayāṁ damayanti 'ti viddhi mām (MBh.), 'know me for the Vidarbha-king's daughter, Damayanti by name'; but ajñam bālam ity āhuḥ (M.), 'they call an ignorant man a child'. With the suffix of it is to be compared that of táti etc. (519).

b. va in iva (toneless), 'like, as', and evá (in V. often evá), earlier 'thus', later a particle emphasizing the preceding word; for 'thus' is used later the related evám, which hardly occurs in RV., and in AV. only with Vvid: as, evám vidván, 'knowing thus'.

In later Vedic (AV. etc.) iva more often counts for only a single syllable.

1103. a. By the suffix da are made adverbs of time, but

almost only from pronominal roots.

Thus, tada, yadá, kadá, idá (only in V.); and súdā, beside which is found earlier sádam. Besides these, in the older language, only sarvadá; later a few others, as anyadā, ekadā, nityadā.

b. By the perhaps related dānīm are made idánīm, tadánīm, viçvadánīm. c. With rhi are made, from pronominal roots, tárhi, etárhi, yárhi, kárhi, amúrhi.

d. The suffix di, found only in yádi, 'if', is perhaps related with dā, in form as in meaning.

1104. By the suffix dha are formed adverbs especially from numerals, signifying -fold, times, ways', etc.

Thus, ekadha, dvidhá (also dvídhā and dvedhá), trídhā (in the old language usually tredha), saddhá (also ṣoḍhá and ṣaḍdhā), dvūdaçadhá, sahasradhá, and so on. Also, naturally, from words having a quasi-numeral character: thus, tatidha, bahudhá, purudhá, viçvádhā, çaçvadhá, etūvaddhá. In a very few cases, also from general noun and adjective stems: thus, mitradha (AV.), priyadhá (TS.), ṛjudhá (TB.), pariṣṭubdhā (PB.).

The particle ádha or ádhā, a Vedic equivalent of átha, probably belongs here (purudhá and viçvádha, with shortened final, occur a few times in RV.); also addha, 'in truth'; and perhaps sahá, 'with', which has an equivalent sadha- in several Vedic compounds. And the other adverbs in ha (1100 a) may be of like origin.

1105. From a few numerals are made multiplicative adverbs with s: namely, duís, trís, and catúr (probably, for catúrs).

The corresponding word for 'once', sakṛt, is a compound rather than a derivative; and the same character belongs still more evidently to pañcakṛtvas, navakṛtvas, aparimitakṛtvas, etc., though kṛt and kṛtvas are regarded by the native grammarians as suffixes (AV. has dáça kṛtvas and saptá kṛtvas).

1106. By the suffix çás are made, especially from numeral or quantitative stems, adverbs of quantity or measure or manner, generally used distributively.

Thus, ekaçás, one by one', çataçás, 'by hundreds', ṛtuçás, 'season by season', pacchas, 'foot by foot', akṣaraçás, ‘syllable by syllable', gaṇaçús, ‘in crowds', stambaçás, 'by bunches', paruççás, limb by limb', tāvacchás, 'in such and such number or quantity': and, in a more general way, sarvaçãs, 'wholly', mukhyaças, 'principally', kṛchraças, 'stingily'.

1107. By the suffix vát are made with great freedom, in every period of the language, adverbs signifying 'after the manner of, like', etc.

Thus, añgirasvát, 'like Angiras', manuṣvát (RV.), 'as Manu did', jamadagnivát, 'after the manner of Jamadagni'; pūrvavát or pratnavát or purāṇavát, 'as of old', kākatālīyavat, ‘after the fashion of the crow and the palm-fruit'.

This is really the adverbially used accusative (with adverbial shift of accent below, 1111e) of the suffix vant (next chapter), which in the Veda makes certain adjective compounds of a similar meaning: thus, tvávant, 'like thee', mávant, ‘of my sort', etc.

1108. By the suffix sāt are made adverbs signifying 'into the condition of, which are used along with verbs of becoming and of making.

Thus, agnisāt+Vkr, 'reduce to fire, burn up'; bhasmasāt + уbhū, 'turn to ashes'; atmasatkṛta, 'made one's own'.

These derivatives are unknown in the earlier language, and not common in the later. The s of sat is not liable to conversion into s. The connection with the following verb is not so close as to require the use of the gerund in ya: thus, bhasmasātkṛtvā (not -kṛtya: above, 990).

1109. Suffixes, not of noun-derivation or inflection, may be traced with more or less plausibility in a few other adverbs. Thus, for example, in prātár, 'early', and sanutár, ‘away'; in dakṣinít, 'with right hand', and cikitvít, 'with consideration'; in nūnám, 'now', and nūnānám, 'variously'. But the cases are in the main too rare and doubtful to be worth notice here.

The adverbs of this division are almost never used prepositionally. Those of the next division, however, are in many instances so used.

1110. Case-forms used as Adverbs. A large number of adverbs are more more or less evidently cases in form, made from stems which are not otherwise in use. Also many cases of known stems, pronominal or noun or adjective, are used with an adverbial value, being distinguished from proper cases by some difference of application, which is sometimes accompanied by an irregularity of form.

1111. The accusative is the case most frequently and widely used adverbially. Thus :

a. Of pronominal stems: as, yúd, 'if, when, that', etc.; tád, 'then' etc.; kim, 'why, whether', etc.; idám, 'now, here'; adás, 'yonder'; and so on. Of like value, apparently, are the (mostly Vedic) particles kád, kám and kam(?), íd, cid (common at every period), smád and sumád, im and sim (by some regarded as still possessing pronoun-value), -kim.

Compounds with íd are céd. 'if', néd, 'lest', svid, kuvíd; with cid, kúcid; with -kim, núkīm and mákim, and ákim.

b. Of noun-stems: as, náma, 'by name'; súkham, 'happily'; kámam, 'at will, if you please'; núktam, 'by night'; ráhas, 'secretly'; oṣám, 'quickly' (V.); and so on.

c. Of adjective stems, in great numbers: as, satyám, 'truly'; cirám, 'long'; nítyam, 'constantly'; bhúyas, 'more, again'; and so on.

1. The neuter singular is the case commonly employed in this way; and it is formed and used adverbially from a large class of compound stems which do not occur in adjective use (the so-called avyayībhāva-compounds: below, chap. XVIII.).