806. From three roots, vid 'find', vic, and dṛç, the later language allows strong participle-stems to be made with the union-vowel, as well as in the regular manner without it: thus, viviçiváns or viviçváñs. PB. has once

cichidivāns.

807. The ending of the middle participle is anά. It is added to the weak form of perfect-stem, as this appears in the middle inflection: thus, bubudhāna, fa ninyāná, ¿π dadānā, A tenānā, sa jajñāná, a

ucana.

In the Veda, the long reduplicating vowel is shown by many middle participles: thus, vāvṛdhānā, vāvasāṇā, dādṛhāná, çūçuvāná, etc. RV. has çaçayānú from Vçi (with irregular guṇa, as in the present-system: 629); tistirāna from Vstṛ; and once, with māna, sasṛmāṇā from Vsṛ.

Modes of the Perfect.

808. Modes of the perfect belong only to the Vedic language, and are even rarely found outside of the Rig-Veda. To draw the line surely and distinctly between these and the mode-forms from other reduplicated tense-stems the present-stem of class II., the reduplicated aorist, and the intensive is not possible, since no criterion of form exists which does not in some cases fail, and since the general equivalence of modal forms from all stems (582), and the common use of the perfect as a present in the Veda (823), deprive us of a criterion of meaning. There can be no reasonable doubt, however, that a considerable body of forms are to be reckoned here: optatives like ānaçyām and babhūyās and babhūyát, imperatives like babhūtu, subjunctives like jabhárat, show such distinctive characteristics of the perfect formation that by their analogy other similar words are confidently classed as belonging to the perfect.

809. The normal method of making such forms would appear to be as follows: from a reduplicated perfect-stem, as (for example) mumuc, an imperative would be made by simply appending, as usual, the imperative endings; the derived subjunctive mode-stem would be mumóca (accented after the analogy of the strong forms of the perfect indicative), and would take either primary or secondary endings; and the optative modestems would be mumucyά in the active, and mumuci (accent on personal endings) in the middle.

And the great majority of the forms in question (about three quarters) are made in these ways. Thus :

810. Examples of the regular subjunctive formation are: a. with secondary endings, active: 2d sing., paprúthas, māmáhas, piprayas, bubodhas; 3d sing., jabhárat, sāsáhat, paspárçat, piprúyat, cikétat;

1st pl., tatánāma, çūçávāma; 3d pl., tatanan, papráthan (other persons do not occur). This is the largest class of cases.

b. with primary endings, active: here seem to belong only dadhárshati and vavártati: compare the formation with different accent below, 811 a.

c. of middle forms occur only the 3d sing. tatápate, çaçúmate, yuyójate, jujósate (SV.; RV. has jújosate); and the 3d pl. tatananta (and perhaps two or three others: below, 811 b, end).

811. But not a few subjunctives of other formation occur; thus:

a. with strengthened root-syllable, as above, but with accent on the reduplication (as in the majority of present-forms of the reduplicating class: above, 645). Here the forms with primary endings, active, preponderate, and are not very rare: for example, jújosasi, jújoṣati, jújoṣathas, jújoṣatha (other persons do not occur). With secondary endings, jújosas, jújosat, and jújosan are the forms that belong most distinctly here (since dádāças and súsūdas etc. are perhaps rather aorists). And there is no middle form but jújosate (RV.: see above, 810 c).

b. with unstrengthened root-syllable occur a small body of forms, which are apparently also accented on the reduplication (accented examples are found only in 3d pl. mid.): thus, active, for example, mumucas; vavṛtat, vividat, çuçuvat; the only middle forms are dadhṛṣate, vāvṛdhate, 3d sing.; and cúkramanta, dádhṛṣanta, rúrucanta (with dadabhanta, paprathanta, māmahanta, juhuranta, which might also belong elsewhere: 810 c).

c. accented on the ending are vāvṛdhánta and cakṛpánta (which are rather to be called augmentless pluperfects).

As to forms with double mode-sign, or transfers to an a-conjugation, see below, 815.

812. Examples of the regular optative formation are:

a. in active: 1st sing., unacyām, jagamyām, papṛcyām, riricyām; 2d sing., vavṛtyās, viviçyās, çuçrūyás, babhūyūs; 3d sing., jagamyāt, vavṛtyāt, tutujyát, babhuyát; 2d du., jagamyātam, çuçrūyatam; 1st pl., sasahyāma, vavṛtyāma, çūçuyāma; 3d pl., tatanyus, vavṛtyus. The forms are quite

numerous.

b. in middle, the forms are few: namely, 1st sing., vavṛtiya; 2d sing., vūvṛdhithas, cakṣamithās; 3d sing., jagrasīta, vavṛtīta, māmṛjīta, çuçucita; 1st pl., vavṛtimahi. And sāsahiṣṭhās and ririsista appear to furnish examples of precative optative forms.

There is no irregular mode of formation of perfect optatives. Individual irregularities are shown by certain forms: thus, cakriyās, papīyāt, çuçrūyás and çuçrūyatam, with treatment of the final as before the passive-sign yá (770); anajyāt with short initial; jakṣīyāt is anomalous; ririses is the only form that shows a union-vowel a.

813. Of regular imperative forms, only a very small number are to be quoted namely, active, cikiddhi, mumugdhí, çuçugdhí, and piprīhí; mumoktu and babhūtu; mumuktam and vavṛktam; jujuṣṭana and vavṛttana (unless we

are to add mamaddhí, mamattu, mamáttana); vavṛddhvam.

middle, vavṛtsva and

814. As irregular imperatives may be reckoned several which show a union-vowel a, or have been transferred to an a-conjugation. Such are, in the active, mumócatam and jujoṣatam (2d du.), and mumócata (2d pl.); in the middle, piprúyasva (only one found with accent), and māmahasva, vāvṛdhasva, vāvṛṣasva (2d sing.), and māmahantām (3d pl.: probably to be accented -ásva and -ántām).

815. Such imperatives as these, taken in connection with some of the subjunctives given above (and a few of the "pluperfect" forms: below, 820), suggest as plausible the assumption of a double present-stem, with reduplication and added a (with which the desiderative stems would be comparable: below, chap. XIV.): for example, jujoṣa from Vjus, from which would come jújosasi etc. and jújosate (811a) as indicative, jújosas etc. as subjunctively used augmentless imperfect, and jujosatam as imperative. Most of the forms given above as subjunctives with primary ending lack a marked and constant subjunctive character, and would pass fairly well as indicatives. And it appears tolerably certain that from one root at least, vṛdh, such a double stem is to be recognized; from vāvṛdha come readily vūvṛdhate, vūvṛdhúnta, and from it alone can come regularly vāvṛdhasva, vāvṛdhéte (above, 801 e), and vāvṛdhāti (once, RV.) - and, yet more, the participle vavṛdhúnt (once, RV.: an isolated case): yet even here we have also vāvṛdhīthās, not vāvṛdhéthās. To assume double present-stems, however, in all the cases would be highly implausible; it is better to recognize the formation as one begun, but not carried out.

Only one other subjunctive with double mode-sign is found to set beside vāvṛdhāti.

namely, papṛcāsi

816. Forms of different model are not very seldom made from the same root: for example, from muc, the subjunctives mumócas, múmocati, and mumucas; from Vdhṛs, dadhúrṣati and dadhṛṣate; from Vpri, the imperatives piprihí and pipráyasva.

Pluperfect.

817. Of an augment-preterit from the perfect-stem, to which the name of pluperfect is given on the ground of its formation (though not of its meaning), the Veda presents a few examples; and one or two forms of the later language (mentioned above, 788, end) have also been referred to it.

There is something of the same difficulty in distinguishing the pluperfect as the perfect-modes from kindred reduplicated formations. Between it and the aorist, however, a difference of meaning helps to make a separation. 818. The normal pluperfect should show a strong stem in the singular active, and a weak one elsewhere with thus, mumoc and mumuc augment prefixed and secondary endings added (us in 3d pl. act., ata in 3d pl. mid.).

Of forms made according to this model, we have, in the active: 1st sing., ajagrabham and acacakṣam (which, by its form, might be aorist: 860); 2d sing. újagan; 3d sing., ajagan and aciket; 2d du., amumuktam; 2d pl. ajaganta, and ajagantana and ajabhartana (a strong form, as so often in this person: 556); 3d pl. (perhaps), amamandus and amamadus. To these may be added the augmentless cikétam and cakaram. In the middle, the 3d pl. acakriran and ajagmiran (with iran instead of ata), and the augmentless 2d sing. jugurthās and suṣupthās, are the most regular forms to be found.

819. Several forms from roots ending in consonants save the endings in 2d and 3d sing. act. by inserting an i (555 b): thus, ábubhojis, aviveçīs; arirecit, ájagrabhīt (avāvarīt and avāvaçītām are rather intensives); and the augmentless jíhinsis (accent?) and dadharṣit belong with them.

820. A few forms show a stem ending in a: they are, in the active: 3d sing., asasvajat, acakrat; in the middle: 3d sing., ápiprata; 2d du., ápaspṛdhethām; 3d pl., atitviṣanta (which by its form might be aorist), ádadṛhanta; and cakradat, cakṛpánta, vāvṛdhánta, juhuranta, would perhaps be best classified here as augmentless forms (compare 811, above).

Uses of the Perfect.

821. In the later language, the perfect is simply a preterit or past tense, equivalent to the imperfect, and interchangeable with it. Except as coming from a few often used verbs (especially aha and uvāca), it is much more rarely employed than the imperfect.

822. In the Brāhmaṇa language, very nearly the same thing is true. In most Brahmanas, the imperfect is the usual tense of narration, and the perfect only occasional; in the Catapatha Brahmana, the perfect is much more widely used.

823. In the Veda, the case is very different. The perfect is used as past tense in narration, but only rarely; sometimes also it has a true "perfect" sense, or signifies a completed past; but oftenest it has a value not distinguishable in point of time from the present. It is thus the equivalent of imperfect, aorist, and present; and it occurs coördinated with them all.

Examples are: of perfect with present, ná çrāmyanti ná ví muñcanty éte váyo ná paptuḥ (RV.), 'they weary not nor stop, they fly like birds'; sé 'd u rájā kṣayati carṣaṇīnám arán ná nemíḥ pári tá babhūva (RV.), 'he in truth rules king of men; he embraces them all, as the wheel the spokes'; of perfect with aorist, úpo ruruce yuvatír ná yósā... úbhūd agníḥ samídhe mánuṣāṇām úkar jyótir bádhamānā tāmānsi (RV.), ‘she is come beaming like a young maiden; Agni has appeared for the kindling of mortals; she hath made light, driving away the darkness'; of perfect with imperfect, áhann áhim ánv apás tatarda (RV.), 'he slew the dragon, and penetrated to the waters'. This last combination is of constant occurrence in the later language.

CHAPTER XI.

THE AORIST SYSTEMS.

824. UNDER the name of aorist are included (as was pointed out above, 532) three quite distinct formations, each of which has its sub-varieties: namely,

I. A SIMPLE-AORIST (equivalent to the Greek "second aorist"), analogous in all respects as to form and inflection with the imperfect. It has two varieties: 1. the rootaorist, with a tense-stem identical with the root (corresponding to an imperfect of the root-class, I.); 2. the a-aorist, with a tense-stem ending iná, or with unionvowel a before the endings (corresponding to an imperfect of the á-class, VII.).

II. 3. A REDUPLICATED AORIST, perhaps in origin identical with an imperfect of the reduplicating class (II.), but having come to be separated from it by marked peculiarities of form. It usually has a union-vowel a before the endings, or is inflected like an imperfect of one of the a-classes; but a few forms occur in the Veda without such vowel.

III. A SIBILANT-AORIST (corresponding to the Greek "first aorist, having for its tense-sign as added to the root, either directly or with a preceding auxiliary i; its endings are usually added immediately to the tense-sign, but in a small number of roots with a union-vowela; a very few roots also are increased by s for its formation; and according to these differences it falls into four varieties: namely, A. without union-vowel a before endings: 4. s-aorist, with s alone added to the root; 5. is-aorist, the same with interposed i; 6. siș-aorist, the same as the preceding with added at the end of the root; B. with union-vowela, 7. sa-aorist.