They are not described as being the chattels or property of the other classes, though such appears to have been the state of some among them. They could acquire and hold property of any kind, and could dispose of it as they pleased. They could pursue the mechanical arts as joinery, masonry, etc. They might learn to read, to write, to paint, etc. Probably no kind of manual labor was prohibited. They could perform sacrifices but must not use the texts of the Vedas, nor the same ritual as the other castes. Brahmins were not allowed to teach them the Vedas, nor to assist them in sacrifice, nor to instruct them how to make any expiation for sin. To acquire the religious knowledge or to perform the religious rites of the other castes, was a crime.* The punishments to be inflicted upon shudras for various offences were far more severe than when committed by the other classes. Thus they were not only to be kept in greater ignorance, but to be punished more severely for their crimes.

The kshatryas and vaishyas having been destroyed or no longer existing as pure castes, all who are not brahmins, are regarded as belonging to the mixed castes (the offspring of unlawful connections), or to some of the numerous classes into which the shudras have become divided, or to those who are regarded as outcastes and included under the general name of pariars. Some of these classes have had for some generations, probably for some centuries, a different social and political position from what is assigned to them in their shastras. As the kshatryas and vaishyas, if still existing, are not recognized as pure castes, the ground they originally occupied in the social and political system must be occupied by the remaining castes. Many brahmins are now engaged in secular occupations. They

* “If a shudra gets by heart any part of the Vedas or the Shastras, the magistrates shall put him to death. If a shudra assumes the brahminical thread (the distinguishing badge of the brahmins) the magistrate shall fine him 800 puns of cowries. If a shudra shall perform the yog (a religious rite) the magistrate shall put him to death, or fine him 200 ashrafees."

"If a shudra shall presume to read any part of the Vedas or Shastras or Purans to a brahmin, a kshatrya, or a vaishya, the magistrate shall heat some bitter oil and pour it into that shudra's mouth; and if a shudra listens to the Vedas or Shastras, then the oil, heated as before, shall be poured into his ears, and anseez and wax shall be melted together, and the orifice of his ears shall be stopped therewith." Halhed's Gentoo Code.

engage without religious scruples in nearly all kinds of government service. They have been ministers of State, counsellors, secretaries, judges, clerks, military officers, and common soldiers. In some districts they are divided into two classes, one class preparing themselves to obtain their livelihood by teaching religious duties and performing religious rites, and the other preparing themselves for secular employment. This last class have no hesitation about engaging in the service of Europeans, Mohammedans, or Hindus of a lower caste than themselves, if they are not required to do any thing contrary to their rules of

caste.

So men of the lower castes have often been princes, generals, merchants, soldiers, etc., and have had brahmins in their employment. Still, whatever the business relations of the parties may be, each caste carefully observes the rules of its own order, and is expected carefully to avoid every thing which would be to the prejudice of the caste of the other party. There is thus mutual observance and forbearance, if not mutual respect.

And

Such was the state of the Hindus for 2,000 or 3,000 years when living under their own governments. Nor until recently was it materially different under the English government; for the policy they adopted was to govern their Hindu subjects according to Hindu laws and usages, and their Mohammedan subjects according to the Mohammedan laws and usages. such continued to be their policy until 1836, when Lord William Bentinck, then governor-general, passed a law or caused one to be passed, that, " In any civil suit where the parties are of different religious persuasions, the laws of the Hindus, Mohammedans, or other religions, shall not be permitted to operate to deprive such party or parties of any property to which but for the operation of such laws they would have been entitled."

As this law was applicable only to Bengal, and some of its provisions appeared to be difficult or imperfect, it had not much influence. No further laws affecting caste were passed till 1850, when the Marquis of Dalhousie, then governor-general, passed the following:-"So much of any law or usage in force within the British territories as inflicts on any person forfeiture of rights or property, or may be held in any way to impair or affect any

right of inheritance by reason of his or her renouncing, or having been excluded from the communion of any religion, or being deprived of caste, shall cease to be enforced as law in the courts of the East India Company, and in the courts established by the Royal Charter within the said territories." This law was designed to give equal toleration and protection to all classes of people. The Hindus remonstrated and protested, but all was in vain. The Act has become one of the laws of the country. No law in any country was ever more required, and no law ever produced more important results.

This law places all classes, Christians, Jews, Mohammedans, and Hindus, upon equal ground, permitting every man to profess and practise what religion he pleases, and to change his religion when he pleases, and retain his personal, family, and property rights. It was designed to confer upon the people of India the same liberty of conscience which the people in England and in the United States enjoy. And yet this law so reasonable and just, excited great alarm among the Hindus and Mohammedans, who regarded it as an uncalled for interference with their usages and rights, and designed to destroy the great bulwarks of their religion. Public meetings were held, earnest speeches were made, and exciting articles appeared in the native journals. Memorials were sent to the governor-general, and Court of Directors. And when these were found to be unavailing, a large sum of money was raised by subscription, and an English barrister of the supreme court in Calcutta was despatched with a memorial to England. In May, 1853, I saw this memorial (signed by more than 8,000 names) presented to the House of Lords by Lord Monteagle, who made a speech in favor of the memorialists. Lord Ellenborough (who had been governor-general of India) then made a speech, describing what would be the unhappy consequences of this law, and deprecating any changes in the religious laws and usages of the people of India. Earl Granville then made a speech in reply, and the memorial was then referred to the Committee of the House on the state of India. The prayer of the memorialists was not granted.

40*

CUSTOMS AND MANNERS.

India, including a territory as large as all Europe south of the Baltic and Russia, or all the United States between the Mississippi and the Atlantic, extending through 26 degrees of latitude, containing 8 or 10 different nations, with as many different languages, and a population of 150 millions of inhabitants, must necessarily have great diversity of customs and manners. The difference between these nations in personal appearance, manners, and language, is nearly or quite as great as it is among the nations of Europe. The inhabitants of the northern parts are fairer than those in the Deckan and southern parts. Some people in the western and north-western provinces, as the Parsees, and Cashmerians, are but little darker than the inhabitants of the southern parts of Europe, while the natives of the Deckan, and the provinces south of it, are as dark and many of them darker than the mulattoes of the United States. Among the inhabitants of India are to be found people of every shade of complexion from a European or American of dark complexion to the common negro. But none of the inhabitants have the peculiar African features. They have black and straight hair, and dark eyes. People in the northern parts are of the average height of Europeans or Americans, but in the Deckan and in the provinces to the south of it, they are of less stature and lighter form. The Bengalees are not so large as the inhabitants of the north-west provinces, but are generally taller than the people on the eastern and western coast of the peninsula. They have generally, very dark complexion for that latitude; they are effeminate in their appearance, and timid and servile in their manners. The Teloogoos, the Tamulians, and the Canarese, are more timid and servile in their intercourse with Europeans, and with superiors among their own people, than the Mahrattas or the Gujerattees. The climate in the northern parts of India makes it necessary for the inhabitants to wear more clothing in the cool months than the inhabitants of the peninsula wear. The men wear turbans, pagotas, and caps of various kinds and shapes. Those of the rich are of fine cloth, and elegant shape, while the poor have, generally, only a

few yards of coarse cloth wrapped round the head. The rich wear long garments, the upper part fitted to the body and confined with a girdle or sash, and the lower part hanging loosely. The Mohammedans and Parsees generally wear loose trousers; the Hindus wear a cloth wrapped round the body, fastened behind, and hanging loosely nearly to the feet. In the Deckan and the provinces south of it, the laboring classes generally wear but little clothing when in their ordinary occupation and in their houses. The shoes of all classes are commonly of clumsy make and appearance, and in the southern provinces are scarcely worn in the house. All classes, Mohammedans as well as Hindus, put off their shoes when they go into places of worship, or of any repute for sanctity. The women in the northern provinces are fairer and better looking than in the southern provinces. They also wear more clothing and adjust their dress with more taste and propriety, producing a more becoming and every way superior personal appearance. All classes of women are fond of ornaments. They wear jewels and rings in the ears and nose, rings on the fingers and toes, chains on the neck, and bracelets on their arms, their wrists, and their ankles. These ornaments are of gold, silver, precious stones, pearls, coral, ivory, etc., often amounting in value to hundreds, and sometimes to many thousands of dollars. They appear sometimes to be really burdened with their ornaments. They take great pains and manifest much pride in ornamenting their children, both girls and boys. Small children whose whole clothing did not cost a dollar, will often have on them ornaments worth $100. Children are often robbed and sometimes murdered to obtain their ornaments. A large part of the property of many people consists of jewelry. The dowry given with daughters in marriage consists to a great extent in articles of this character, and is regarded as the property of the wife. These articles are worn at marriages, holidays, and other festive occasions, and consisting, as they do, chiefly of gold and silver, they can be converted at any time into money, without much loss. A large part of the precious metals in the country is in jewelry, and the supposed possession and value of such property occasions much of the thieving, robbing, plundering, and murdering that take place. This fondness for ornaments, their extravagance in procuring them, and ostentation in