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and the lower classes often incur debts which are a burden upon them for years.

When the marriage ceremonies are over, the bridegroom and the bride return to their respective homes, each living with their parents, and occasionally interchanging visits till they arrive at a state of puberty. Some further ceremonies are then performed, and the parties begin to live together.

One unhappy consequence of the early age at which marriages take place in India is, that one of the parties not unfrequently dies before they have lived together. A widower, whatever his age may be, and to whatever caste he may belong, can marry again. But a widow of the brahminical caste, whether she has ever lived with her husband or not, is not allowed again to enter the married state. She is not allowed to wear her hair, or any ornaments, or to be present at marriages or any other festive occasions. Thus excluded from the marriage state and disgraced in social life, her circumstances, especially if she has not sons to protect her, are very humiliating, and her situation becomes extremely painful. This state often leads openly or secretly to a life of vice and prostitution. It was this view of the painful prospect before them in life that formerly induced so many widows of this caste voluntarily to perish with the bodies of their deceased husbands on the funeral pile. There is some prejudice among some of the other high castes against widows marrying again, and in some places and circles such marriages seldom occur, but I am not aware that it is prohibited to any caste except the brahmins. Among the great body of the Hindus, widows as well as widowers can marry again. The statement sometimes made that widows in India cannot again enter the married state, is true only of the high castes. The marriage of widows is not prohibited by the shastras to more than one tenth part of the people. Among nine tenths of the people widows can marry again and again, if they please. The ceremonies of the second marriage of women are different from those of the first marriage. They are shorter, more simple, and less expensive. The marriage of widows, especially of such as have children, is not so frequent as it is in Christian countries. But among the Mohammedans and the great body of Hindus, there is no law or usage depriving widows of the privi

lege and the right of again entering the marriage state. Indeed, considering how early females are married, generally when mere children, and consequently how many of them become widows, it is not easy to see how society could exist, were no widows of any caste permitted again to enter on married life.

It is declared in the Hindu laws to be a crime for parents to sell their daughters to be married, or to accept any pecuniary consideration for giving them in marriage to any party whatever. But this law is little regarded. It is very common for parents to take all they can get in such cases, and for a pecuniary consideration they will often give their daughters in marriage to old men who are widowers, or to men who have already one or two wives. In this way young girls are often sacrificed for money to a wretched and miserable life by their selfish and unfeeling parents.

Parents generally marry their sons as well as their daughters when young, and in such cases the men and women are nearly of the same age. But sometimes boys, either from the poverty of their parents or from some other cause, grow up unmarried, and such men, whatever may be their age, will marry young girls. Among the brahmins, all the girls must be married before they are 11 years old, and as widows, however young they may be, cannot again enter the married state, all bachelors and widowers of this caste, if they wish to marry, whatever their age may be, can only marry young girls, mere children. This unreasonable custom is the cause of many unequal and incongruous connections men 40, 50, 60 and more years old married to young girls. Such marriages and families can seldom be otherwise than unhappy.

POLYGAMY.

Polygamy is practised among all classes of the native population in India-among Hindus, Mohammedans, Parsees, and Jews. Among some classes the custom is, that if a man's first wife has no children he may take a second, and for the same reason a third, etc. And among some classes, if a man's wife has no son he may take a second wife. There may be other causes

which are deemed sufficient for it.* Wealth and inclination generally govern the conduct of men in these matters more than any fixed rules.† The Koran allows any Mohammedan to marry four wives, and then to have as many concubines as he can maintain. But polygamy appears not to be more common among them than it is among the Hindus. The Parsees or Zoroastrians practise polygamy, but cases of it are not frequent. The Jews also in India practise it, and think they have sufficient authority for it in the example of the patriarchs and kings of the Old Testament. I have often had discussions with them upon this subject.

A peculiar kind of polygamy exists among the brahmins of Bengal. Bullalsen, a former Raja of Bengal, having observed that many of the brahmins had little regard to the shastras and religious rites and usages, in the hope of promoting learning and religion among them, divided them into several classes or orders. The first class was called Kuleen or the Kuleen brahmins, and was designed to embrace only those who were learned, pious, etc. But instead of continuing to be an Order of Merit, as was intended, it has become a mere hereditary distinction, a kind of hereditary nobility without any reference to the personal qualities in view of which it originated. This class claims and everywhere receives preeminence, and it is a great honor to be allied to them. The men of this class can marry into other divisions of the brahminical caste, who will often give large sums of money for the honor of such a connection, but the women or daughters of kuleen brahmins can marry only into their own class or order. In consequence of this strange usage, says Ward, "the sons of kuleens are generally preëngaged, while their un

* The Institutes of Menu, which are the highest authority in such matters, say: "A barren wife may be superseded by another in the eighth year; she whose children are all dead, in the tenth; she who brings forth only daughters, in the eleventh; she who speaks unkindly, without delay."

† I was once ascending the Ganges with some friends when one of our company who belonged to Calcutta, directed our attention to a large and beautiful house situated near the bank of the river, remarking that the resident was a son of the late king of Oude. After looking a while at the palace, the park, and other things, he pointed out some appurtenances, and said that those places were occupied by the harem. I inquired how many wives the owner had. My friend replied that he did not know the exact number, but there were about 80.

married daughters for want of young men of equal rank, become so numerous that husbands cannot be found for them; hence one kuleen brahmin often marries a number of wives of his own order. Each kuleen marries at least two wives; one the daughter of a brahmin of his own order, and the other of a shortry brahmin; the former he generally leaves at her father's, the other he takes to his own house. It is essential to the honor of a kuleen that he have one daughter, but by the birth of many daughters he sinks in respect; hence he dreads more than other Hindus the birth of daughters. Some inferior kuleens marry many wives. I have heard of persons having 120; many have 15 or 20, and others 40 or 50 each. Numbers procure a subsistence by this excessive polygamy; at their marriages they obtain large presents, and as often as they visit these wives they receive presents from the father, and thus having married into 40 or 50 families, a kuleen goes from house to house, and is fed, clothed, etc." In this way Bullalsen's creation of an Order of Merit among the brahmins, has produced a state of monstrous polygamy, which has no equal in the history of human depravity.

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The domestic habits of the Hindus and Mohammedans are such that it would be impossible to ascertain or definitely say what proportion of men have two or more wives, and in some districts the cases are much more frequent than in others. In some places the proportion of men who have two or more wives, may be 1 in 5, and in other places not more than 1 in 10. In this respect there is no difference between the native population in the territories under the English government, and in those which are subject to the native princes. When the East India Company began to acquire territory in India, and so have a native population under their government, Acts of Parliament were passed authorizing the inhabitants to live and act in accordance with their previously established laws and usages in civil and religious matters. The English government has always had the power to make any new laws for which there might appear to be occasion. But none have been enacted concerning polygamy, nor does it appear likely that any such will be enacted for some time to come. So the laws and usages previously existing are still in force, and they are administered by English

* Ward's View of the Hindus, vol. 1, p. 81, 82.

magistrates. Thus in Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, which have belonged to the English for several generations, polygamy is practised as freely by the different classes and castes of the native population, as it would be if they were living under governments professing their own faith. And in the same manner polygamy with all its evils, personal, social, and moral, exists among more than 100 millions of people living under the British government. People of different religions and castes never intermarry with each other, and all questions and cases concerning marriage, inheritance, etc., are decided in the courts according to established laws and usages of the respective parties. Cases of this character, where the parties are Hindus, are decided according to the Hindu laws and usages, and where the parties are Mohammedans according to their laws and usages. So also with the Parsees, the Jews, etc. In cases affecting the validity of marriages, as cases concerning hereditary right to property, the question considered by the courts is, whether the mar riage in its circumstances and connections was in accordance with the established usages of that class of people, and was then regarded by all interested as a proper and valid marriage. If it is decided to be of this character, then all questions depending upon the marriage or involved in it, are determined according to the laws and usages of the parties interested.

It has been mentioned that polygamy among the native population of India is protected by Acts of Parliament, and by the decisions of the highest courts. The marriage of a Hindu or a Mohammedan or a Jew in India with his second, third, or fourth wife, if it is performed according to the Hindu or Mohammedan or Jewish laws and usages, is as valid as his marriage with his first wife, as valid as the marriage of any European or American is in his own country. The children of each wife are equally legitimate. He cannot divorce either of his wives without due form of law, and the law is open to his wives for redress, if he should refuse to support them or their children.

CASTE.

The distinctions of Caste in India are so peculiar, and have existed so long, they have had so much influence upon the state

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