seize and destroy the sun or moon, and so at the time of an eclipse, the people fast and pray that the sun or moon, as the case may be, may not be destroyed. Sometimes they implore Ketu to forbear and spare the sun or the moon, and sometimes they beseech the gods to interpose and save them. The brahmins and the Hindus generally fast on days when an eclipse is expected, till it has passed over; they then perform the prescribed religious ceremonies and eat. If it is an eclipse of the sun, and is to be nearly or quite total, its beginning and progress is observed by many with much anxiety. All business is suspended. Some engage in prayers to the gods to interpose and preserve the sun; some implore the demon, who is believed to be making an attack upon the sun, to desist; and some give alms to the poor, supposed then to be peculiarly meritorious. There are men in different parts of the country who understand the astronomical tables and rules enough to make almanacs. These almanacs contain notices of the solar and lunar eclipses to be expected in the coming year. These notices generally vary some from the exact time, but as such eclipses are not observed for any practical purposes, and people have very indefinite notions of accuracy in time, the errors and differences generally pass unobserved. Changes and all phenomena in the heavenly bodies are much intermixed with superstitious notions on astrology, and the almanacs of the Indian astronomers are chiefly valued for the supposed information they contain concerning lucky and unlucky days, signs, etc. The superstition of the people in these matters is excessive, and notions of this character govern them in the greater part of the important transactions of life. The opinion of the astrologer is an important element in forming a marriage contract, and then in fixing upon the time for the ceremonies, in determining to make a voyage, journey, etc., and then in setting out upon it. So strong are the superstitious feelings of many concerning the supposed influence of the stars on human affairs, and that some days are lucky, and others again are unlucky, that no arguments or promises would induce them to deviate from the course which these stars, signs, etc., indicate as the way of safety, prosperity, and happiness. The evils and inconvenience of these superstitions and prejudices are among the things that press heavily upon the people of India.

MEDICINE.

Works on diseases and their remedies show that at some former period, much attention was given to these subjects. Works of this character were translated into the Arabic language, and the Arabian writers acknowledge their obligation to India. Inoculation for the smallpox was practised in India long before it was known in Europe. Venesection, lithotomy, and couching for cataract, were understood and practised. The list of Indian' medicines includes many of mineral as well as of vegetable origin, and their chemical preparation was as well understood as in any country at that time. The giving and taking of medicines are often mixed with superstitious usages and foolish notions, which are regarded as essential to their efficacy. Their imperfect knowledge of anatomy does not admit of their becoming skilful in surgery. The practice of medicine is generally confined to the same families for successive generations, the father communicating to his sons his knowledge and his skill, his books, and as far as possible, his reputation. There appear never to have been any ancient schools of medicine which acquired celebrity, nor does the art of healing appear to have in any way received the patronage of native governments. Poets who could celebrate the praises of their benefactors, and brahmins and devotees, whose support, on account of their religious character, was deemed a work of merit, and obtained for their benefactors the reputation of piety as well as of liberality, were the objects of royal bounty. But those who were sick or injured by accidents, must seek for medical knowledge and surgical skill where they could find them.

The English government supports surgeons in the army, in the native as well as the European regiments. The care which the English government shows for the health of their native troops, and the treatment these receive when sick, so different from what is seen and experienced in the armies of the native princes, have greatly strengthened the power of the English in India. The European surgeons in charge of the native regiments have generally some native assistants under their care, who acquire considerable knowledge of diseases and the Eu

ropean manner of treating them. These men on leaving the army, and sometimes perhaps while in connection with it, practise medicine among the native population in the cities and large towns. And defective as the knowledge and skill of this class are when compared with the regularly educated physicians of Europe and America, they are yet far superior to the common native doctors. There are large hospitals in Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, and in other large cities, and generally at the civil stations, where medical advice and medicines are given gratuitously to the poor and suffering. The English have done much to introduce and extend vaccine inoculation. The government also furnishes medicine and sometimes medical attendance for a while in places where cholera prevails. Medical institutions have been recently established by the English government in Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay. They have wellqualified professors, and it is expected that native men will become prepared in them to practise medicine among their countrymen, and so India, in the course of time, will have a qualified medical profession, for want of which she has so long suffered.

The oriental nations generally acknowledge the superiority of Europeans in medical science and skill. The readiness, and frequently the anxiety they manifest when ill, to put themselves under the care of European physicians, even when they have no more knowledge of the party than that he is an acknowledged physician among his countrymen, is surprising. This is true of the princes as well as of the common people, and European physicians, by their medical skill, with the emperors, kings, and princes, have often been able to perform important services for the English interests in India. In Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, and perhaps a few other cities, some European physicians have had profitable practice among the higher classes of the native population.

MARRIAGE.

Agreements and arrangements concerning marriage in India are made by parents for their children. They feel it as much a part of their duty to effect the marriage of their children, as they do to support them when young, and to educate them. Such

has been the custom of the country for many centuries. One reason they assign for this custom is, that if their children should grow up unmarried, they might form unsuitable connections to the sorrow and dishonor of their friends, and to their own unhappiness. Another reason assigned is, that if allowed to grow up unmarried, they perhaps would not form any marriage connection, but would live idly and lewdly and become profligate. The marriage relation is also supposed to be necessary to preserve the moral character of their daughters. A long and intimate acquaintance with many people of different classes, and the spirit that generally pervades the native population, satisfied me that these opinions of the consequences of parents allowing their children to grow up unmarried, and then to form what connections they pleased or none at all, have more of prudence, wisdom, and consideration in their favor than they at first sight appear to have. Unhappy as such early marriages often must be, yet I am not certain but in India, where society is so corrupt, employment so difficult to procure, temptations to licentiousness so great, and the means of supporting families so hard to be realized, greater evils would result from parents allowing their children to grow up unmarried, and then to marry as they please or not marry at all. No doubt families, if the marriage connection between the parents was formed at mature age and from their free choice, would generally be happier, yet very many men, if they grew up unmarried, would never enter the marriage state, and it appears not unlikely that the social and moral state of people would be worse than it now is. Could polygamy be abolished and widows among all classes have the same right of again entering the married state that men have, so that widowers could marry women of their own age, and not be compelled, as they now are, to marry young girls and even children, it would probably be as well for the present custom of parents arranging and settling and completing the marriage of their children to continue until the people have become better educated, and a better moral spirit shall pervade all classes of the inhabitants. The higher classes generally marry their children at an earlier age than the middle ånd lower classes. Boys are generally married at ages varying from 7 or 8 to 12 or 15 years, and girls at an earlier age. Among the brahmins, if any girl remains

unmarried until she is 11 years old, the family is suspended from caste. The marriage of children, sons as well as daughters, is regarded as a matter of great importance. All classes are very superstitious in respect to lucky and unlucky days for this ceremony. The astrologer is called to show his knowledge of the future, and the stars and other powers,* supposed to have influence over human affairs, are consulted. If these opinions and indications should all be favorable, the marriage covenant between the parents of the children is made, and a propitious time for the ceremony is selected. The friends of both parties are invited to be present. The gatherings at such times are generally large, and continue for 2 or 3 days, and sometimes for a week. The marriage ceremonies are performed by some brahmin, in the presence of the assembly. These ceremonies are numerous, tedious, and mystical, and being in the Sanscrit language are utterly unintelligible; for even if the people understood the language (and not one in a thousand does understand it) he hurries through it so fast and speaks so low that none know what he says. Indeed, much of what he says consists of mystical words and phrases, which he repeats by rote, often understanding as little of them himself as those do who hear him. Yet all these ceremonies are believed to be of great importance. The expenses for ornaments, religious ceremonies, feasting, music, processions, illuminations, presents to friends, etc., are large. The rich expend money very freely on such occasions,

*I once became ill when on a missionary tour, and had to stop a while in the verandah of a temple. While there I was much troubled by people coming to consult the god about a marriage then under consideration. The way they proceeded was first to worship the idol, and then taking two flowers put them in water and pressed one of them on the right and the other on the left breast or cheek of the idol. The idol was of stone, somewhat resembling the human form, and having been recently besmeared with shandur (red lead and oil mixed), the flowers would adhere to it so long as they continued to be wet. The people having thus applied the flowers, would then stand before the idol and pray thus: --"O god, if this marriage now under consideration will be happy, then cause the flower on thy right breast or cheek to fall first; and if it will be unhappy, then cause the flower on thy left breast or cheek to fall first.” They would then all stand anxiously waiting to see the result. They tried the experiment, or rather in this way consulted the god, several times, and were prepared to act in accordance with what they believed to be his revealed will Similar ways of consulting the gods in important matters are often practised.