guished, and the kingdoms became provinces of an empire under governors or deputies. In this way the political state and relations of the country were entirely changed. India, instead of exhibiting an assemblage of separate nations, each with its own king, laws, etc., became an empire under one political head, and divided into provinces under governors.

But though the political state of the country and the relations of the people had become changed, yet they still lived in the same territories, used the same languages and customs, and to a great extent they retained the same religion as they had when they were independent nations, and such continued to be their state while subject to the emperors of Delhi. And in these respects there was little change when the English power was extended over the country. The territories within which any language is now used, shows with very little variation the limits of its ancient kingdom. Thus the territory in which the Tamul language is vernacular, shows the limits of the ancient Tamul kingdom. So the territories or districts in which the Canarese language, the Teloogoo language, etc., are vernacular, show the limits of their ancient kingdoms respectively. And the territories in which, and the population by which these different languages are used, are nearly or quite as large on an average, as the kingdoms and population of Europe are, when compared with the number of languages there used.

The Tamul is more refined and polished, and it contains more literature than any other vernacular language in India. The ancient kings of this nation appear to have encouraged learning and learned men at their court, and these men wrote their works in the Tamul language. Learned men of the same age at the other native courts and over India generally, wrote their works in Sanscrit, as the learned men of Europe, in the middle ages, wrote in Latin. The other vernacular languages contain but little literature of native origin. What they have, consists of fragments of history, translations of some Sanscrit works, songs, almanacs, etc. The English government in carrying out its system of education, has encouraged the preparation of original works and translations in the vernacular languages, and many valuable books have been printed within a few years past. The Education, Missionary, and Book Socie

ties, are also doing much to create a useful vernacular literature. The works which have been prepared and printed in the languages of India within 25 or 30 years past, are more in number and value than all which had ever been written and printed in them previous to that time.

Nearly all these languages have different alphabets. Some of these alphabets are capable by their single and double letters of expressing a great variety of sounds, making the language soft and musical. But some of them are harsh and guttural. Efforts have been made to substitute the use of Roman letters in all the vernacular languages, and so have only one instead of 8 or 10 different alphabets. Some books in Bengal were printed in this way. But this innovation, though it had zealous advocates for a while, did not meet with much favor; and for obvious reasons the sounds of many letters and words, proper names as well as other words, cannot be properly, scarcely intelligibly, expressed by the Roman letters, at least not by any sounds which these have, in the English or any modern language.

The number of different languages in India occasions more difficulty to Europeans than to the native population. The latter experience no more inconvenience from these than the inhabitants of Europe do from the number and difference of languages there used. In India the languages of districts bordering on each other are easily acquired by the inhabitants so far as they have occasion to use them. In the cities where 2 or 3 languages are used, people who use the same language generally live in one part of the city, and their social intercourse is among themselves. And men of general business easily acquire as much knowledge of each language as they require. Europeans travelling or often changing their place of residence in India, have found so much difficulty from these different languages that the importance of making some one of these supersede the others and become the common language of the country, has several times been urged upon the public and upon the government. But this course would not be found to be practicable, nor would the anticipated effect be realized.

The native princes, Mohammedan and Hindu, often gave salaries and pensions to men of reputed learning and piety.

By such means they secured the influence of these men and their friends. Such men in return for the favors they received, were expected to celebrate the virtues and actions of their sovereigns. But the princes of India did little or nothing for the education of the common people. Education in reading, writing, etc., was regarded generally as a qualification for business, like the mechanical trades of carpentry, masonry, etc. Those who aimed to be employed in the service of the government, or to become merchants or shopkeepers, endeavored to obtain the education required for the work in view. And some education was generally regarded as essential to the personal respectability and influence of the brahmins. So schools supported by fees were frequent in the cities, towns, and large villages. These schools were seldom well managed, and the education acquired in them was often very imperfect, barely enough to transact the ordinary business of keeping accounts. But the great body of the people had no education. Till recently education was scarcely known among women, and of the men in some districts perhaps 1 in 5 could read, but in other districts not 1 in 20 could read. And so long as there were no papers or journals or books of any interest or utility to read, there was but little motive for taking the trouble or being at the expense of learning.

The native population now use the press with vigor and enterprise. The number of papers and journals printed in the vernacular languages in the different parts of India is now large. These papers are often badly managed, and yet worse supported; still they awaken the native mind and diffuse some useful information. The native presses also issue books of all kinds, which appear likely to sell so as to secure remuneration. Such papers and books make people feel the importance of education, and are contributing to promote it. These causes in connection with the course the English government is now pursuing, and the numerous mission schools and educational institutions, open a brighter prospect for India.

COMMERCE.

The commerce of India, both external and internal, is large. It is carried on with China, and the other countries and islands

east and south-east from India, on a large scale. This trade is chiefly in the hands of the merchants of India. The vessels have, generally, European officers and native crews. The two principal articles of export to China are cotton and opium. The countries bordering on the Indus, the Persian Gulf, the Euphrates, and the eastern coast of Africa, also carry on a large trade with India. Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, are the principal ports of the foreign trade. There is also much trade at the numerous smaller ports on the eastern and western coast of the peninsula. The trade between India and Europe is chiefly carried on round the Cape of Good Hope. There has been much speculation and calculation about ways and means for carrying on the trade between India and Europe by the Rea Sea, Egypt, and the Mediterranean Sea, and for a few years past small quantities of valuable goods have been transmitted by that way in the steam-ships which carry the mails. Whether any canal between the Red and the Mediterranean Seas across the isthmus of Suez, or any railroad between the same seas via Cairo, will hereafter restore the trade of the southern countries of Asia with Europe and the western countries of Asia to its former channel, remains to be seen. It appears to be the opinion of those who have given most consideration to this subject, that even if the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea should be united by a canal or railroad, still the greatest part of the trade between the southern countries of Asia and the western countries of Europe will always be carried on round the Cape of Good Hope.

The internal trade of India is large, but it is not so great as might naturally be expected, considering the variety of its climate, soil, and productions. The streams do not afford so many facilities for trade as might naturally be expected in so large a country. The rivers of the peninsula in the rainy season are much swollen and their currents are rapid, and in the dry season. they are shallow, and have many sand-banks in their course and at their mouths. These obstacles make the rivers of the peninsula and also the Taptee and the Nerbudda of little use for commerce. The Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and the Indus are noble rivers, but navigation upon them is much impeded by inundations, currents, changes in their channels, and sand-banks.

There are steamboats on the rivers, but the results expected from them have not been yet realized. The railroads now in the course of construction and projected, when they are completed, will open an immense internal trade between the different and distant provinces of the country, and form a new era in its com

merce.

For some years past there has been a well-regulated system of steam-navigation between the large seaports in the southern countries of Asia. One line of steamships runs between Suez and Calcutta, stopping at Galle and Madras. At Aden this line communicates with one running to Bombay, and at Galle it communicates with a line running between Bombay and Singapore, Canton, and other eastern ports. And at Singapore this last mentioned line communicates with one running from that port via Batavia to Australia. All these lines are under the patronage of the British government. The steamships are of the first class, and carry the mails, passengers, and merchandise. Such were these lines of steamships when I left India, and if the system has been altered, it has probably been in the way of enlargement. This system of steam navigation has much increased the trade of India, and is infusing new life and spirit into eastern commerce.

The places of commerce have much changed since it began to be carried on round the Cape of Good Hope. Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, had no distinction under the native governments, and had only a few thousand inhabitants when the English acquired possession of them. Now each of them contains half a million of inhabitants, and in commerce as well as in population they rank in the first class of cities in the world. Surat, Cambay, Calicut, Hooghly, Dacca, and other cities which were once the seats of large commerce, have much declined and ceased to be places of foreign trade. The great imperial and royal cities of India, as Delhi, Agra, Oude, etc., had never much foreign trade. Their population, wealth, and splendor originated in their being the capitals of empires and kingdoms. And when they ceased to be the capitals of emperors, kings, and princes, they declined, and have now become chiefly remarkable for their ruins.

Accounts are kept in rupees, annas, and pies; 12 pies make