and fanatical spirit which animated the first Mohammedan conquerors of Egypt, Syria, and Persia. Causim made treaties with several Hindu princes, and employed natives of the country in high situations under his government. He formed plans for greatly extending his conquests, and was preparing to carry them into effect when sudden reverses came upon him, and he was deprived of the command of the army. Mohammedan historians say he was put to death by the orders of the Caliph, upon some groundless charges made against him. Temin his successor had not the ability and enterprise required to lead the army to further conquests. The Mohammedan doctrines, and especially the rite of circumcision, were exceedingly odious to the Hindus, and they defended their religion and their country with great obstinacy. The Mohammedan army, in the course of a few years, became much reduced, and the Hindus uniting in a general insurrection expelled the invaders from India, and the country continued for several generations in their undisturbed possession.

The failure of the Mohammedans to extend their conquests and even to retain what they had acquired in India, so different from their progress and success at that time in other countries, arose from the state of India and the peculiar character and institutions of the Hindus. The country was subject to many independent princes, who must all be conquered in succession, and could only be subdued by carrying war into the successive territory of each one separately. The Hindu religion has so little connection with the state that the conquest of the country and the expulsion or extinction of dynasties would have but little direct influence upon the religion of the people. Their religion depends upon their hereditary priesthood and their sacred books and places, and this priesthood has nothing like a hierarchy, has no authoritative spiritual head. Again, the division of the people into different castes presents a great barrier to social intercourse and religious sympathy, and yet those of the same caste are more closely united together than any society or community which has ever existed in any other social state or religious system. These were obstacles to the progress of the Mohammedan religion, which it had never encountered in any other country. Further, the invasion was made from Persia,

where the people had not the stern fanatical zeal for religion which distinguished the early proselytes and immediate successors of Mohammed, as they went from Arabia to spread their faith and reform the world. And as this zeal for the simple faith of their creed and their admiration of the austere manners of the prophet diminished, they gradually acquired a love of wealth, luxury, and splendor. They were glad to exchange the simple tent for the splendid palace, and the plain dress which their prophet wore for the gorgeous robes of courtiers and monarchs. And in order to attain these things they became willing to make treaties of alliance with idolaters, and the consequence of this course was that they were themselves expelled from the country.

The next Mohammedan invasion of India was from a different direction and was of a more permanent character. Persia was one of the first countries which the Mohammedans invaded and conquered. The inhabitants generally embraced the faith of the conquerors more from compulsion than from conviction of its truth, for in a few years they attempted to expel their conquerors and to reestablish their former religion. Such people are not likely to have much zeal for spreading their new faith, and Mohammedanism made its way very slowly in the countries between Persia and India. In the year 977 of the Christian era, Subuctagee became the governor of the province of Candahar. He had a high character for military talents, and the army having selected him as their sovereign he assumed independence. He selected Ghizni for his capital and laid the foundation for one of the most powerful kingdoms then in the world. The Hindus, who had painful experience of the aggressive and intolerant spirit of the Mohammedans, looked with great anxiety upon this kingdom now established near their border, and several excursions of Afghans into their territories soon convinced them that their fears were not without reason. Provoked by these attacks, Jypal, Raja of Lahore, collected a large army and proceeded towards Ghizni either to invade Afghanistan, or to repel an expected invasion. As he and Subuctagee were preparing to engage in battle, a great tempest arose, which either from its violence or some circumstances connected with it, frightened and disheartened the Hindus so much that Jypal

solicited peace, which he at length obtained by paying a large sum of money and surrendering 50 of his elephants. This treaty in some of its conditions, it is said he afterwards refused to fulfil, and also treated the ambassadors of Subuctagee with great insolence.

Such conduct greatly exasperated the Afghan sovereign, and assembling a large army he began his march towards India, while Jypal, who aware what the effect of his conduct would be, had formed an alliance with several princes in the northern parts of India, prepared to defend his territory. The Mohammedan historians, to whom we are chiefly indebted for information on the Mohammedan conquest of India, say that Jypal's army contained 100,000 cavalry and an almost incredible number of footsoldiers. But such great numbers add little to the strength or efficiency of a half-disciplined army. They can seldom all be arranged so as to engage in battle. The disciplined force in whatever direction it moves, compels all to give way before it, and when disorder and confusion once commence, the greater the army the greater the carnage and slaughter. The fierce and warlike tribes of Afghanistan have seldom had reason to feel much respect for the armies of India, and they have often had reason to hold them in contempt. Subuctagee commenced the attack by a succession of charges by his best cavalry upon the centre of the Indian army, and as soon as he saw this part in disorder and giving way, he ordered an attack to be made upon their whole line. The Hindus soon gave way; a total rout ensued, and the fugitives were pursued with great carnage to the Indus. Subuctagee obtained great booty in the Hindu camp; he took possession of all the country west of the river and annexed it to his dominions.

Subuctagee died in 997, leaving the character of a wise prince and skilful general. As usual in the oriental kingdoms at that time, dissensions arose and civil war followed about the succession. His son Mahmoud had generally accompanied his father in his campaigns, and had displayed much military talent. His father had reposed great confidence in him, and he had generally been regarded as the heir to the throne. But he was in some of the western provinces at the time of his father's death, and a younger brother, Ishmael, succeeded in obtaining

possession of his father's treasures, and in causing himself to be acknowledged the successor of his father's power. A war now ensued between the two brothers, which after exhibiting for some time the usual characteristics of intrigue and deceit in oriental armies and courts, was terminated by a severe battle, the taking of Ghizni, and the confinement of Ishmael for life. Mahmoud, now the undisputed sovereign of all his father's dominions, was occupied for some time in establishing order and strengthening his government. As soon as he had arranged his affairs so that they no longer required his personal attention, he began his preparations for invading India, a purpose he had long cherished if he should succeed his father. He had accompanied his father in his expedition to Multan and Lahore, and so had seen something and heard more of the wealth and glory of India. He had seen what armies the Hindu princes brought into the field. He knew the superior qualities of his Afghan troops, and believed that victory would follow his colors when unfurled in battle with the armies of the idolaters of Hindustan. He was at this time a very devout Mussulman, believing it was his duty to destroy all idols and temples for idol-worship, and to bring all idolaters to embrace Mohammedanism as the only true faith.

Mahmoud, with such means at command, such a purpose long and fondly cherished, and such views of his own faith and of idolatry, would soon cause his power to be felt in India. In 1001, the 4th year of his reign, he left Ghizni with a large force to invade those parts of India which were contiguous to his own dominions. Jypal, Raja of Lahore, was yet living and prepared to meet him with a large army. But Mahmoud defeated this army and took Jypal prisoner. He then took Betinda, which was the capital or one of the principal cities of Jypal, and contained his treasures. He then returned to Ghizni with a great amount of spoil. Jypal was set at liberty to govern his own dominions as a dependent and tributary prince or deputy of Mahmoud. This purpose, if it ever was his purpose, he did not carry into effect. On arriving in his capital he invested his son Anundpal with the government, caused a funeral pile to be prepared and funeral ceremonies to be performed, and then prostrating himself upon it he

applied the fire with his own hand and perished in the flames.*

Mahmoud was now engaged for some time in wars with the princes and tribes north and west of Afghanistan, and so had not leisure to add to his conquests in India. He made a hurried expedition to Lahore, and also to Multan to adjust some matters requiring his personal attention, but he returned to Ghizni as soon as possible. So the Hindu princes had time to consider what a dangerous neighbor they had on their borders, and to concert measures among themselves for self-defence.† From what they knew of Mahmoud's warlike character, his hatred of idolatry, and his love of plunder, they had reason to expect he would repeat his invasion as soon as the state of his dominions would admit, and so they formed a strong confederacy to resist him as their common enemy. This confederacy included the Rajas of Lahore, Oujein, Gwalior, Kalinga, Kanouj, Delhi, and Ajmere. This large combination shows that the invasion of Mahmoud had caused great excitement in northern India. And this excitement was not without sufficient cause. Wars in India have generally been contests between princes for the governing power, and in no way affecting the interests of the great body of the people, who cared little about the issue, if they were only let alone. But the invasions and conquests of Mahmoud were of a very different character. They aimed at the subversion of the religion of the inhabitants as well as of the power of the princes, and all classes were roused to self-defence. "Even the Hindu women sold their jewels, melted down their golden ornaments, and sent their contributions from a distance to furnish resources for this holy war.”

* "In those days it was a custom of the Hindus that whatever Raja was twice defeated by his enemies, should be by that disgrace rendered unfit for further command. Jypal, in compliance with this custom, having raised his son to the government, ordered a funeral pile to be prepared, upon which he sacrificed himself to his gods."

† Mahmoud's reign of 33 years was spent in continual war, enlarging his dominions or plundering idolaters, or suppressing insurrections. But we shall only give a sketch of those which had respect to India. We would remark, however, as showing his power and the customs and means of war in that age, that in a great battle near Balk, Mahmoud had 500 war-elephants, which spread around them terror and death and contributed much to gain the victory.