be to exalt the brahminical caste, and they contain evidence of having been compiled by men of this caste and with an unscrupulous view to their own interest. Some have supposed that this Code was once the universal law of India. But there is not sufficient reason for believing this opinion. It is more reasonable to suppose that the compilers arranged these laws so as to show what in their opinion ought to be, or what they wished to be observed, than what had been or were being observed. Still this Code, if not at its origin, yet at an early period in its history, was received as of divine authority, and so exerted much influence among the people. But it was probably with this Code as it was with the Jewish laws of old, and as it has been in modern times with the doctrines of Mohammedanism and Christianity, that many who live in countries where these systems prevail, pay little or no regard to them; while many others who profess to believe them, yield obedience no farther than is convenient and agreeable.

Among the celebrated names in Indian mythology and history is Vikram and Vikramditya, and these names are applied at pleasure to the same individual. Several monarchs of this name are mentioned, but the one who established the commencement of his reign, as an era which still continues in use in central India, has been chiefly celebrated. He commenced his reign in Oujein, then called Awanti, 56 years before the Christian era. He was renowned for his virtues in peace and for his prowess in war. He encouraged learning and supported many learned men at his court, among whom was the celebrated poet Kalidas. Those who enjoyed the patronage of the monarch, celebrated his piety, liberality, and bravery in a manner which shows that if some actions and qualities ascribed to him were facts, yet much of what they said must be fiction. He is said himself to have worshipped the infinite and invisible God, but at the same time to have erected temples and endowed shrines of the deities which were generally worshipped by his subjects. This may have been all true concerning him, or it may have been said merely to praise him; as though his knowledge was so great and his mind so enlightened that he could worship without the use of any images, rites, etc., while yet he

was so kind and liberal as to provide such aids for the use of those to whom for want of knowledge or mental capacity they

were necessary.

In the Deckan a king by the name of Shalewahan reigned at Pytan on the Godavery, in the first century of the Christian era. The popular literature and tradition contain some marvellous and fabulous stories about his birth and early life. He made war upon Vikram and compelled him to withdraw from the Deckan. They then came to a mutual understanding that Vikram should reign over all the country lying north of the Nerbudda and that his era should be there used, and that Shalewahan should reign over all the country south of that river and that his era should there be used. These eras continue to be used according to this supposed agreement up to the present time.

It has been already remarked, that at the time of the Mohammedan invasion and at every previous period when we can get a view of the state of India, we see it divided into a number of separate and independent kingdoms. Thus in the extreme southern parts of the peninsula we see the kingdom of Pandion with Madura for its capital and using the Tamul language; then next to it, the kingdom of Carnata with Vejyanuggur for its capital and using the Carnarese language; then the kingdom of Telingana with Warangole for its capital and using the Telugu language; then north-east, the kingdom of Orissa with Cuttac for its capital and using the Oriya language; then in the Deckan, the kingdom of Marashtra with Pytan and the Deoghur for its capital and using the Mahratta language; then to the north-west, the kingdom of Gujerat with Anhalwara for its capital and using the Gujeratee language. In this way we might proceed all over India. Awanti (now Oujein) in Malwa, Gouri in Bengal, Palibothra, Magadi, Ayodhya (now Oude), Mithili, and Delhi, in the great valley of the Ganges were the ancient capitals of kingdoms. Sometimes one of these kingdoms was divided into two or three governments for awhile, and would then be united again. These kingdoms could generally show long genealogies of kings, often terminating to fables and mythology. The virtues and victories of their kings were chronicled in legends, celebrated in poetry, and sung in ballads, but they had no properly connected and arranged

records of public events or authentic history of their kings or their kingdoms. It appears to be unnecessary, in view of the present state of India and the object of this work, to try to gather up or to arrange any further facts or opinions concerning these obscure kingdoms, whose political existence ceased some centuries ago, and which do not appear likely again ever to recover any political importance or any national existence. Some account of the sacred books of the Hindus, their deities, their literature, their religious rites and ceremonies, their customs, manners, etc., will be given in another part of this work.

CHAPTER II.

THE MOHAMMEDAN PERIOD.

FOR many centuries previous to the origin of the Mohammedan religion the inhabitants of Arabia and the southern parts of Persia had carried on a large trade with the western coast of India, and when the inhabitants of these countries embraced the Mohammedan religion and became imbued with its spirit, they would naturally endeavor to propagate it in those parts of India with which they were best acquainted, and had most intercourse. And so it was. In the time of the early Caliphs, expeditions were sent from Arabia and Persia to the western coast of India to propagate the new faith. The accounts of these are meagre, consisting of traditions gathered up by Mohammedan historians long afterwards. In the time of the Caliph Waleed, the governor of Bussora dispatched an army of 6,000 men to India under the command of Mohammed Causim. This army was well prepared with means for aggressive war, and the commander was determined to retain possession of the countries he might conquer, and to convert their inhabitants to the true faith. This army made its first descent at Dewal a seaport in Scinde, belonging to a Hindu prince, called by Mohammedan historians, Raja Dahir. Causim commenced his warfare by beseiging a large, fortified temple near the city. Being informed that a large flag flying at the

top of the temple was regarded as its palladium by the superstitious inmates, Causim directed his engines to it and soon brought it down. The people seeing the flag fall were panicstruck, and soon surrendered. Causim issued orders that all the males should be circumcised, but on account of the resistance of the brahmins, or for some other reason, he became so much exasperated that he caused all the males over 17 years old to be put to death, and all under that age, as well as the women and children to be reduced to slavery.

Causim next attacked the town, which was soon taken, and much booty was obtained in it. One fifth part of the booty was reserved for the governor of Bussora or the Caliph, according to early Mohammedan usage, and the rest was divided among the captors. The submission of the country around Dewal soon followed, and Causim proceeded up the Indus to Schwan and other places, of which he took possession. This invasion from a foreign country, and the barbarous manner of forcing the inhabitants to embrace a new faith, aroused the native powers and the spirit of the people, and Causim found his further progress opposed by a large army under the Raja. Having been reinforced by 2,000 cavalry from Persia, and animated by that enthusiasm which so powerfully influenced the early Mohammedan conquerors, Causim resolved to maintain his ground, though attacked by an army of 50,000 men. The attack was commenced by the Raja, who in the style of that age in India, was mounted on a war-elephant. A fire-ball, thrown from the engines having struck the animal, he was so much frightened that he ran from the battle field, and plunged into the river. The army, supposing that the Raja had been killed, became dismayed and soon gave way on every side. And though the Raja returned to the field, yet he could not rally his flying troops. But he showed his own courage by continuing the battle till he fell among the slain.

This battle took place near Allore, the ancient capital of Scinde. The Raja's widow, or the widow of one of his sons, then in the city, furnished an instance of the courage and desperation which sometimes occur in the ancient history of India. "She collected the remains of the scattered army, put the city into a posture of defence, and maintained it against the attacks

of the enemy until the failure of provisions rendered it impossible to hold out any longer. In this extremity her resolution did not desert her, and the garrison inflamed by her example determined to devote themselves along with her, after the manner of her tribe. The women and children were first sacrificed in flames of their own kindling; the men performed their ablutions, and then with solemn ceremonies took leave of each other and of the world; the gates were then thrown open, the men rushed out, sword in hand, and encountering their enemies, all perished to a man."

If this tragic scene exhibits the character and spirit of the Hindus, the following shows the savage barbarity of the Mohammedans: "Those of the garrison who did not share in this act of desperation, gained little by their prudence; the city was carried by assault; all the men in arms were slaughtered in the storm, and their families were reduced to bondage.”

Causim continued the war till the dominions of Raja Dahir had submitted to his authority. These dominions included the country each side of the Indus, from its mouth to Multan, which is mentioned as one of the cities he conquered. This territory then included all Scinde and the southern part of the Punjab. These conquests were made in the spirit of the Mohammedan religion at that early period of its history. When the army approached any city, the inhabitants were summoned to embrace the Mohammedan faith, or to submit to such tribute as might be imposed upon them. If they refused such terms, the city was attacked, and if it did not capitulate upon some stipulated conditions, when taken, all the fighting men were killed and their families reduced to slavery. When cities resisted to the last extremity, the slaughter was often very great, and the misery of families was extreme. Traders, mechanics, etc., if they continued quiet, were not oppressed or injured beyond paying the tribute exacted, and enduring such evils as originated in the seige or storming of the city. When tribute was agreed to, either on the part of the prince or the people, they were allowed to live, so long as they paid the tribute, according to their own religion, and to such laws and usages as were conceded to them. The Mohammedans who invaded India, appear soon to have lost something of the stern