longer, to the taking of Conftantinople by Mahomet, A. D. 1453.

Odoacer, having reigned feventeen years, was overthrown in feveral engagements, and at laft flain by THEODORIC; who first established the kingdom of the Goths in Italy, and embracing Christianity, reigned at Rome with great wisdom and moderation, till he died, A. D. 526, aged feventy-four. But about fifty years after, Italy was annexed to the empire of the Eaft, by Narfes the eunuch, general of the Emperor Justinian; who cut off Totila, the last king of the Goths, and established what was called the Exarchate of Ravenna, A. D. 554, which lafted one hundred and eighty-five years.

The Lombards, a nation of Germany under Alboinus, feized upon the greatest part of the north of Italy, hence called the kingdom of Lombardy, A. D. 571.

The northern nations were now in poffeffion of all the countries of the Roman empire in the Weft. Hardly any veftige of the Roman laws, arts, or literature, remained. New forms of government, new manners, new names of men and countries, were every where introduced. From this period to the eleventh century, Europe was covered with the groffeft ignorance and barbarity. Perfons of the highest rank could neitner write nor read. The government which these nations established, is now called the Feudal Syftem. The king or general parcelled out the conquered lands to his officers, and they to their foldiers, under the condition of attending the king in war, when required. This form, although it may feem well calculated for defence against foreign enemies, was very unfavourable for internal happiness and security.

The kingdom of Lombardy lafted two hundred years, and ended with Defiderius, who was dethroned by Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, King of France, A. D. 772.

During the feeble government of his fucceffors, Italy was divided into different ftates and principalities, which, with a few alterations, fubfift to this day.

Savoy, Piedmont, &c. have been long fubject to the present family, who were called Dukes of Savoy, till the beginning of this century, when they obtained the title of King of Sardinia.

Milan, after various revolutions, is now fubject to the House of Auftria, to which is annexed the dukedom of Mantua. Parma and Placentia are subject to a prince of the royal family of Spain. Modena, is governed by its own Duke, under the protection of the Houfe of Auftria.

The

The republic of GENOA owes its liberty to Andrew Doria, a native of it, admiral to Charles V. It is governed by the nobility, who elect a Duke or Doge every two years. The island of Corfica was formerly fubject to Genoa, but was ceded to France, a. 1770. Lucca is under a fimilar government to that of Genoa, enjoying the protection of Auftria. Its citizens are remarkable for their industry. Various other cities in Tuscany were formerly free, as Florence, Pifa, Siena, &c.; but they all fell under the power of the family of Medici, feveral princes of which were great favourers of learning in the fifteenth century. Tulcany is now fubject to the houfe of Auftria, a younger branch of which rules it, under the title of Grand Duke of Tuscany.

The republic of VENICE is the most ancient in Europe. During the ravages of Attila, A. D. 452, a number of fugitives took refuge in a cluster of small islands at the top of the Hadriatic, and laid the foundation of this city; which, by the cultivation of commerce, in process of time raised itself to be the firft power in Italy. In the year 1193, the Venetians conquered Conftantinople itself, and held it for fome time; and it was fo late as 1715 that they loft the Morea. Their great opulence excited the envy of the neighbouring ftates. The Emperor of Germany, the Kings of France and Spain, the Pope, and all the princes of Italy, formed a league, called the League of Cambray, to crufh them, A. D. 1508. Venice was at first stripped of all its poffeffions, but was afterwards faved by a difference arifing among thofe powers about the divifion of their prey. It has never fince, however, recovered its former importance, and now holds only a secondary place among the powers of Europe. It has been chiefly hurt by the different direction which commerce has taken fince the discovery of a paffage to the East Indies round the Cape of Good Hope, by the Portuguese, under De Gama, A. D. 1497.—The fupreme power at Venice is lodged in the nobility, who elect a Duke or Doge for life, who lives in great ftate, but has little

power.

The POPES were originally only Bishops of Rome, and obtained respect from the dignity of the See in which they prefided. But taking advantage of the fuperftition and credulity of their conquerors, who had embraced Christianity, they, by degrees, artfully enlarged their authority; and pretending to be the fucceffors of St Peter, and heads of the church, they established a spiritual dominion over the minds of men, to which for many ages moft part of Europe tubmitted with

Ii2

implicit

implicit obedience. In all ecclefiaftical controverfies, their decifions were confidered as infallible. Nor was their power confined to thefe alone; they dethroned monarchs, difpofed of crowns, and abfolved fubjccts from the obedience due to their fovereigns. The great inftrument of their authority was what they called laying kingdoms under interdicts, or prohibiting the performance of certain religious fervices. There was not a throne which they had not fhaken, nor a prince who did not tremble at their power.

The Popes were originally dependent, first on the Emperors of Rome, and afterwards of Germany; but in process of time, they arrogated to themselves a fuperior authority, as being vicegerents of Chrift upon earth. Pope GREGORY VII. carried his prefumption fo far, that quarrelling with Henry IV. an Emperor diftinguished for his virtue and ability, about the difpofal of church-benefices, he obliged him to ftand three days, bare footed, in the depth of winter, before the gates of his caftle, imploring a pardon, which he at length with difficulty obtained, A. D. 1077.

This conteft between Gregory and Henry gave rise to two great factions, called the GUELFS and GHIBBELINES, which kept Italy and Germany in perpetual agitation for three centuries; the former fupporting the pretenfions of the Popes, and the latter defending the rights of the Emperors.

The Popes were chiefly indebted for their temporal power to the liberality of MATILDA Countefs of Tufcany, to Gregory VII. and to the donations of other fuperftitious princes: but the foundation of it was firft laid by PEPIN, king of France, who obliged Aifulphus, king of the Lombards, to furrender Ravenna, which he had reduced, with all the territories belonging to the Exarchate, to Pope Stephen III. From the time of Clement V. 1305, to Gregory XI. 1377, the Popes refided at Avignon in France. The death of Gregory occafioned a violent fchifm in the church, which lafted from the year,1379 to 1429, during which period there were two Popes at the fame time, the one refiding at Rome, and the other at Avignon; each acknowledged by different parts of Europe. At one time there were three Popes.

The power of the Pope was greatly diminished by the reftoration of literature in the fixteenth century, after the taking of Conftantinople, 1453; and the invention of printing by John Guttemberg of Strafburg, John Fauft and Peter Sheffer at Mentz, 1440; or, according to others, by Laurence Coffer at

Harleim;

Harleim but it received the fevereft blow by the reformation of religion, begun in Germany by Martin Luther, 1517.

The Pope, however, still claims high authority. He is ftyled His Holinefs; and ambaffadors, or even princes, approaching him, humbly kifs his toe. His ambaffadors are called legates or nuncios. The cardinals are next in dignity to the Pope; and upon his decease, create a fucceffor out of their own number. For which purpofe they are confined each in a separate apartment, in a particular place in the Vatican, called the Conclave. The authority of the Pope has of late been greatly reduced.

In the territories of the Pope, and under his protection, is the fmall republic of St Marino.

Account of the CRUSADES, and their confequences.

WHILE the power of the Popes was in its zenith, in the eleventh century, they, by means of one PETER, a hermit, fet the princes of Europe on the wild attempt of recovering Judea, and the fepulchre of our Saviour at Jerufalem, out of the hands of the Infidels, or Mahometans. This was called the HOLY WAR, and engaged the attention of Europe near two hundred years. The first expedition was refolved on in the council of Clermont in France, where Pope URBAN prefided, A. D. 1095. It was termed a CRUSADE, from the badge of the cross, by which those who joined in it were diftinguished. The valour of the crufaders, animated by enthufiafm, was at firft irrefiftible. They took Jerufalem, 1099, and GODFREY of Bouillon was created King of Judea. But in the end the Chriftians were deprived of all their poffeffions, after having loft, in feveral different expeditions, above a million of men. Jerufalem was retaken by the Infidels, under SALADIN, king of Egypt and Syria, A. D. 1187. The Chriftians, however, remained in poffeffion of fome part of Palestine near one hundred years longer.

During the crufades, were inftituted the three famous military orders, The Knights of St John of Jerufalem, The Knights Templars, and The Teutonic Knights of St Mary.

This foolish and unsuccessful enterprise, however, in the end, was productive of beneficial confequences, by uniting together the nations of Europe, fufpending hoftilities, and encouraging commerce, particularly in the cities of Italy, Venice, Genoa, and Pifa; whereby they acquired fuch wealth as en

abled

abled them to fecure their liberty and independence, and afterwards to procure political importance. The forming of cities into communities, corporations or bodies politic, as they were called, and granting them the privilege of municipal jurisdiction, without depending on the great lords to whom they had formerly been fubject, was from Italy foon propagated over the rest of Europe.

The Italians first established a commerce with the eaft by the ports of Egypt and the Red Sea ; and then with the countries in the north of Europe, particularly with Hamburg, Lubec, and other cities along the Baltic. These cities had entered into a league, called the HANSEATIC LEAGUE, for the protection of trade from pirates, by whom those feas were infefted. Navigation was then fo imperfect, that a voyage between Italy and the Baltic could not be performed in one fummer. For that reafon certain towns in Flanders were pitched upon, particularly BRUGES, as ftaples, where the Italian merchants, then called LOMBARDS, brought the productions of India, together with the manufactures of Italy, and exchanged them for the more bulky, but not less useful productions of the north. By the invention of the mariners compafs, according to fome, by Flavius of Amalphi, A. D. 1302, navigation was rendered more expeditious and fecure.

The happy effects of granting freedom to the inhabitants of cities, foon induced fovereigns, and their great vaffals, to grant the fame privilege to that part of the people which refided in the country. In confequence of this diffufion of liberty, à more equal method of diftributing juftice came to be introdu ced. The right which individuals claimed, of waging war against one another, was checked; the ridiculous custom of deciding differences by judicial combat, and fire ordeal, as it was termed, was abolished; the power of the nobility was fubjected to that of the fovereign; law began to be ftudied as a fcience; and war ceafed to be the only object of attention to men of rank. A copy of Juftinian's Pandects, called the Corpus Juris, was accidentally difcovered at Amalphi, 1137, which, in a fhort time, revived the knowledge of the Roman law over all Europe. In confequence of these improvements, a greater politenefs and civility of manners began to prevail. This change was greatly promoted by the fingular inftitution of chivalry, which took place after the holy war, but chiefly by the progrefs of science and the cultivation of literature.

Hiflora