ordinate to itself, and so form different degrees of subordination; as, "Eliza's sister's child improves."-"I know who the man is of whom you speak3:" here, the 2d clause is subordinate to the 1st; and the 3d, to the 2d.

173. Reciprocal elements are those which are mutually dependent upon each other; as, "One another; each other."-" The more we have, the more we want." 66 As you are, so is he."

NOTE.-Reciprocal clauses are restricted to such compact sentences as have both correlatives expressed, and are so mutually dependent as to have neither clause principal. (214.)

174. A composite element is one that contains elements of equal rank; as, "Paul and Silas sang."-" Jane reads and writes."

A complex element is one that contains elements of unequal rank; as, "Lofty cedars bend."-" Birds fly swiftly."

1. An element is often both complex and compound; as, "Jane reads books and writes letters."

2. A complex element taken as a whole may be limited by a subordinate element; as, "The old oak-tree; "—" The first two verses."

175. When a clause is either the subject or the object of the verb in the principal clause, the whole is both simple and complex; as, "That ye are gods, is true.”—“It is true, that ye are gods."-"I said, that ye are gods."-" God said, 'Let there be light.""

เ

NOTE 1. The first example, 'That ye are gods, is true,' is a sentence which is both simple and complex. Of the principal clause, That ye are gods,' is the subject (parsed as a noun): is is the predicate, limited by the adjective true; is true is the complex predicate. That is a conjunction uniting the clauses, thus: 'It is true, THAT ye are gods.' Of the subordinate clause, ye is the subject, &c.

2. In the last example, the clauses are united by incorporation; and the latter clause, (parsed as a noun,) is the object of the verb in the former.

What are reciprocal elements? To what are they restricted? What is a composite element? A complex element? What may an element often be? What may a subordinate element limit? When is a sentence both simple and complex?

In a complex sentence, the principal clause is called the leading clause; its subject, the leading subject; and its predicate, the leading predicate.

EXERCISE.

Write examples illustrating the properties of elements.

VARIATION OF ELEMENTS.

176. Words, phrases, and clauses, by expansion or contraction, may be changed one into another :

=

=

1. BY EXPANSION; "as, " Singing = to sing = for one to sing that one should sing, is pleasant."-" A wise man = a man of wisdom a man who is wise, will be esteemed." "Now = at this time while we are talking." "That one should sin = for one sinning, is humiliating."—"A man who is discreet a man of discretion = a discreet man, will avoid contention.". "We saw him when we were there = at that time = then."

2. BY CONTRACTION; as, to sin = to sin =

Expand the following words:—Sin, stealing, wise, early, now, walking, writing, seeing, reading. (146.)

Contract the italicised portions of the following expressions:-For one to fall from a church steeple. That he should have gone so suddenly. People who are prudent. It fell where we are standing. This very moment. Scholars of perseverance will succeed. He is an officer whose courage is admitted. To dig frozen ground is hard work. That she should be silent is wonderful. How did you hear that they had arrived?

CONNECTION OF WORDS.

177. Words are united immediately, or oy a connective:

In a complex sentence, what is the principal clause called? Its subject? Its predicate? How are words, phrases, or clauses, converted one into another? How are words united? Give examples.

at dinner.
without worth.

He came late at sunset = as the sun was setting.

A wise man = a man of wisdom = a man who is wise, is esteemed.

Expand the following (146):

Mexican horses. Egyp-
Solomon's temple. A

Prudent men. Wealthy persons. tian relics. Washington's sword. morning ride. Very wisely. He is poor. The nations are fighting. He is penniless. They are worthless. He came late. He pleads now. They left early. A persevering man will be honored. An industrious man will gain wealth. Solomon's temple was burned.

An iron plate. The city of Boston. The house top. His brother. Last year's report. Madison's administration. Paul's preaching. Good men are happy.

EXERCISE.

Write examples illustrating each of the foregoing forms. 178. WORDS USED INDEPENDENTLY.

I. Nouns are used independently:

1. By direct address; as, "Boys, study your lesson." -"Sir, you live here?" "I do, sir."-" Dear Queen, grant my request?"

2. By pleonasm; as, "The fathers, where are they?" II. Adverbs are used independently: 1. In affirmation: yes, yea, ay, aye; as, Yes."

go?

"Will you

2. In negation: nay, no; as, “Did you see him? No." 3. By ellipsis: well; as, "Is all well? Well." i. e.

"All is well.”

4. As a prayer: amen (so let it be); as, "Grace be with you all. Amen."

How are nouns used independently? Name some adverbs used independently. What part of speech is always used independently?

5. In explanation: viz., namely, to wit (that is to say; to know); as, "Two of them were wrong; viz., the first and the last."

III. Interjections are used independently; as, "Hush! he is at the door." "Ah! was it so?""Alas! my lord, she is dead."

EXERCISE.

179. Write six sentences, each containing a noun used independently by direct address. Write six, each containing a noun used independently by pleonasm. Write six sentences, each containing an adverb used independently. Write six sentences, each containing an interjection used independ ently.

180. MODEL OF ANALYSIS.
Hush! he is at the door-

is a simple declarative sentence. It is a sentence, etc. The subject is he. The simple predicate is is. The complex predicate is is at the door, consisting of the simple predicate and the phrase at the door by which it is limited. The phrase at the door consists of the preposition at, which connects is and door, and the noun door, which is limited by the definitive adjective the. Hush is an interjection, used independently.

The good old times, alas! whither have they flown—

is a simple interrogative sentence. It is a sentence, etc. The subject is they. The simple predicate is have flown: flown is the principal verb, have is an auxiliary. The complex predicate is whither have flown, consisting of the simple predicate and the adverb whither, by which it is limited. The good old times is an independent expression, consisting of the noun times, used independently by pleonasm, and the definitive adjective the and the attributive adjectives good and old, by which the noun times is limited. Alas is an interjection, used independently.

EXAMPLES FOR ANALYZING AND PARSING.
Hush! he is about to enter.
Sir, you have injured him.
Is your brother well? Yes.
No. Is he indeed a villain?
offer? Yes: yes. Are

you

Alas! you are in the fault Youth, sir, is not my only crime You are not wounded, father? No: no. Will you accept my inclined to labor? Yes; yes: I

am inclined to it: idleness is tiresome. Have you been ill?

He is well you say?
really true.
O no,

Yes, well, but he is joyless. Nay, but it's I do not grieve, yet I must weep. Very well; I have just been following your advice. Are you? Yes: Does he remain here? No: he does not remain here.

I am.

ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS.

181. An abridged proposition is one that has its predicate so changed as to destroy the affirmation.

In complex sentences, it is only the proposition in the subordinate clause that can be abridged.

In abridging a clause, the finite verb becomes a participle, or an infinitive, or is dropped; and the connective is usually omitted.

1. When the subjects denote different objects, that of the subordinate clause will become the case absolute (190.-1); as, "When the sun approaches, the snow melts away:" abridged, "The sun approaching, the snow melts away." This is still complex, having one abridged and one complete proposition. In the complete form, the predicate is affirmed: in the abridged form, it is assumed.

2. When the subjects denote the same object, that of the subordinate clause will be omitted; as, "When I saw his distress, I went to his relief:" abridged, "Seeing his distress, I went to his relief." This is a simple sentence with a composite predicate, partly assumed and partly affirmed. (168.)

Other abridged forms may be considered as entirely simple.

3. The participle often becomes a mere modifier after the object or predicate; as, "He saw Moscow as it was burning:" abridged, "He saw Moscow burning."-"I saw the vessel which was anchored in the bay:" abridged, "I saw the vessel anchored in the bay."

4. The participle in the abridged clause, is often a verbal noun; and a noun or pronoun after it, has the same case that it had in the complete clause; as, "That he is a hero is of no consequence:" abridged, "His being a hero is of no consequence."-"I am sure that it was he:" abridged, “I am sure of its being he.”—“I knew that he was a judge:" abridged, "I knew of his being a judge."-"I was not aware that he was writing:" abridged, "I was not aware of his writing." In this case,

What is an abridged proposition? In a complex sentence, which proposition only can be abridged? In abridging a clause, what changes take place? When will a subject become the case absolute? When omitted? What does the participle often be come? In the abridged clause what is it often? What case has the noun or pronoun after it?