Ignorance prevailed among the great mass of the laity, nor did the nobles form an exception. On one occasion, Henry II. sent an embassy to the Pope, consisting of several bishops and four of the great barons of the realm. The clergy addressed the pontiff in Latin, and when they had finished, one of the barons said in English: "We, who are illiterate laymen, do not understand one word of what the bishops have spoken to your holiness." This, at a time when Latin was almost the only written language, showed great ignorance.

During the twelfth century, the schools of Oxford and Cambridge began to rise into importance, and to take the name of universities. There was also a celebrated school at St. Alban's, and several in London, which in this century became the capital of England. To many distinguished "writers of this age we are indebted for interesting and faithful histories. Among these may be named Henry of Huntingdon, William of Malmsbury, and Gerald Barry, called more commonly by his Latin name, Giraldus Cambrensis, the latter name meaning " of Cambria," or Wales, of which country he was a native.

The condition of the country during this period was, for the Norman conquerors especially, extremely insecure. The bold outlaws who had dwelt in the forests ever since the days of the conquest, grew especially famous in the reign of King Richard and his successor, under Robin Hood, who is said to have been none other than the outlawed Robert, Earl of Huntingdon. In the glades of Sherwood Forest, Robin Hood and his merry men, dressed in Lincoln green, with bugle-horn and silver baldrick, hunted, robbed, and ruled at will.

Professed champions of the English race, they are said never to have taken a penny or done a wrong to the Saxon; but, on the contrary, that the wealth of which they robbed many a Norman baron, was spent in relieving the wants of their oppressed countrymen. Certain it is, that the names of Robin Hood and the bold outlaws of Sherwood Forest, were long loved and revered by the English, and they still live in many

a stirring ballad. The following may serve as a specimen of these popular compositions:

"Robin wisht well unto the king,
And prayed still for his health,
And never practiced anything
Against the commonwealth.

Only, because he was undone
By the cruel clergy then,
He did all he could think upon,
To vex such kind of men.

With wealth that he by roguery got,
Eight almshouses he built,
Thinking thereby to purge the blot
Of blood which he had spilt.

Nor would he injure husbandmen,
That toil at cart and plough;
For well he knew wer't not for them,
To live no man knew how.

Full thirteen years, and something more,

These outlaws lived thus;

Feared of the rich, loved of the poor:

A thing most marvellous.

In those days men more barbarous were,

And lived less in awe;

Now, God be thanked, the people fear
More to offend the law."

Richard, Coeur-de-Lion, on his return to England, besieged and carried Nottingham Castle, the last stronghold which held for the treacherous John. He then made an excursion into Sherwood Forest, which, stretching from Nottingham into Yorkshire, over several hundred square miles, presented the largest and most beautiful tract of woods in England. Here he is said to have encountered the famous Robin Hood.

Ballad and romance weave many a pretty tale of the meeting between the king of England and the bold Saxon outlaws, who, "ranging the forest merry and free," escaped the oppression of the Norman sway.

QUESTIONS.-Describe the castle of a feudal lord.-Describe the feudal village.—State the origin of chivalry.-What was the vow of a knight?-Describe the accomplishments of a squire.-Describe the ceremony of knighting.

Relate the origin of the Knights Templars and Knights of St. John. -What is told of their subsequent history?-Describe the different species of armor worn.-What gave rise to the science of heraldry? -Describe the tournament.-Give some account of the banquets of this age. What is said with respect to their ordinary meals?

Describe the prominent peculiarities of dress in this age.-What is said of learning ?-What instance is given in proof of the general illiterateness of this period?-What institutions of learning are mentioned ?-Give the names of some distinguished writers of this age. Relate what is told of the Saxon outlaws.-Name the most famous of them.-Who is he supposed to have been?-What is told of Richard I. in this connection?

PART V.

ENGLAND DURING THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY.

JOHN-HENRY III.-EDWARD I.

A. D. 1199-1307.

"Awed by his nobles, by his commons cursed,
The oppressor ruled tyrannic where he durst,
Stretched o'er the poor and church his iron rod,
And served alike his vassals and his God."

THE thirteenth century is a very important and interesting one in English history, because it witnessed the signing of Magna Charta, that great safeguard of English liberty. The distinguishing characteristic of this charter is, that it grants equal civil rights to all classes of freemen, thus breaking the bonds of oppression under which the feudal vassal had so long suffered.

By Magna Charta, the king and every feudal lord were forbidden to exact from their vassals the hard services and enormous sums of money which they had been in the habit of requiring. They were forbidden to tyrannize over their wards, in obliging them to marry against their will. This species of tyranny had been carried to such excess, that no less than seven thousand pounds were paid to Henry II. by

Maud, Countess of Warwick, that she might be allowed to marry whom she pleased. Lucia, Countess of Chester, the ward of King Stephen, paid nearly as great a sum to be permitted to remain a widow for five years.

The freedom and rights of the city of London and other towns were secured to them, and the forest laws were mitigated. No freeman was to be unlawfully imprisoned or banished merely at the will of his feudal lord, nor was justice in regard to a prisoner to be denied or delayed. As his person was not to be imprisoned at the will of another, so also was not the property of a freeman to be seized, nor any excessive fine laid upon it In no case were the implements necessary to each man's employment or calling to be taken in fine. The peasant was not to lose his plough or wagon, or tools, nor the merchant his wares, the scholar his books, nor the gentleman his arms. In Wales, the harp was not to be taken in fine. To all classes of freemen, the liberty of person and property was secured. No one thought of bettering the condition of the villains and serfs. They are only alluded to once in this instrument, where they are spoken of among other property of the feudal ward, which was not to be wasted.

The state of social freedom and security obtained by Magna Charta, was a great advance upon those rude and lawless times, when the vassal lay for months, it might be for years, in his lord's dungeons, without the hope of justice, or compelled to purchase his true and lawful right by the sacrifice of nearly all his property. On those bad times, too, when the peasant and the tradesman were liable to be robbed of all their earnings, and to become miserable outcasts.

This great charter of English liberty was given in the reign of King John, who succeeded his brother Richard on the throne of England in the year 1199.

He was as bad and treacherous a king as he had been a sou and brother. The first part of his reign was spent in 1199. wars against the king of France, who had taken part with Arthur of Bretagne, the rightful heir to the throne, being the son of Geoffrey, King John's elder brother. Arthur's