force on the inhabitants their trade and their religion, at the point of the sword. Vasco da Gama himself was guilty of some atrocious cruelties. 6. A hundred years later the Dutch began to establish themselves in India, and their example was followed, not long after, by the English and the French. John Cabot tried to reach the country by sailing round the north coast of America; the result was that he discovered Newfoundland. Attempts were also made to get there round the north of Europe. In 1596 Cornelius Houtman, a Dutchman, reached Sumatra by way of the Cape, and, soon after, several trading companies were established. In 1602 these were amalgamated into the 'Dutch East India Company.' The Dutch quite outstripped the Portuguese, and for some years had practically the whole Indian trade in their hands. They continued to trade largely, but not exclusively, until the middle of the eighteenth century; but now they are scarcely found in India. The English 'East India Company,' so often mentioned in the following pages, was founded 31st December, 1600. It was not dissolved until the year 1858. Other English companies were formed from timeto time; but some failed, and others became incorporated with the great company. At first this was known as the 'Merchants of London trading to the East Indies,' but on amalgamating in 1709 with another large concern—the 'General Society trading to the East Indies,' established with a capital of two millions of pounds in 1698,—it altered its style to the 'United Company of Merchants of England trading to the East Indies.' The first. French Company was founded in 1604. Danes, Spaniards, and Swedes also opened trade with India; but their operations were not significant enough to concern us at present. 7. The object the English had in view when they first went to India, was to extend their commerce. In the spices, and rice, and silks, British merchants saw their opportunity for realising large profits. That they judged rightly is shown by the fact that the East India Company, which started with 70,000l. was able not only to pay immense dividends to its proprietors, but ninety-eight years later lent the English Government three millions of pounds. All this money was earned in a comparatively honest way. The rights of the natives of India were, on the whole, respected. Factories were established by permission of the local rulers, and rent was paid for them; and though from time to time a little fighting took place, it was in a great measure, only in self-defence. 8. Unhappily, this state of things was not to continue. Much would have more.' It was seen that the private treasuries of the native rulers were full to overflowing; and European greed, not satisfied with the rich products of the earth, began to cast covetous eyes on these accumulations. It seemed a fine thing, too, to be able to rule; and if these natives who, at the best, were not first-rate fighting men, could be dispossessed, then the real, if not the apparent, control might be obtained by the servants of the companies. The existing rulers were not, in all cases, good. Under pretence of saving the subjects of these from oppression, or because of some real or fancied interference with what they chose to regard as their own rights, the European companies made war on these native rulers, deposed some, extorted immense sums of money from others, and practically became masters of a considerable portion of the country. Of course their profits increased largely, and not only theirs, but the profits of their servants in India; who, encouraged to pillage for their employers, saw little wrong in pillaging also for themselves. Their salaries were usually small, yet, thanks to ill-gotten gains, numbers of them after a very few years' service in India returned to England laden with wealth. People did not understand then, and perhaps they hardly understand yet, that men whom they call savages have just as much claim as their own fellow-countrymen, to be treated uprightly, and that theft is theft whether committed at home or abroad, within reach of the law or beyond it. The following pages contain an account of the aggressive policy pursued by the English in the time of Warren Hastings. 9. Another temptation to resort to war was found in the foolish desire of each European nation to exclude all the rest. The Portuguese, the Dutch, the French, and the English were all jealous of one another. There was plenty of trade for every one of them, yet each wanted to grasp it all, or, if that were impossible, at least to prevent others from having any of it. First the Portuguese, and then the Dutch were driven off, until at length, in the middle of the last century, the two great rivals were France and England-the former being then, too, more firmly established, the more powerful of the two, and on that account the more generally respected, or perhaps feared, by the natives. 10. We have already mentioned the establishment of the great Mogul Empire at Delhi in 1526, and that about the year 1707 its power began to decline. Till then it had successfully ruled both Northern and Southern India, but when, after a succession of very able princes, men of inferior ability succeeded to the throne, the viceroys in different parts of the country achieved, or partly achieved, their independence. This was particularly the case in Southern India, which was farthest from the capital, and which also was invaded by the powerful hordes of Hindoos --known as the Mahrattas-who swept down upon it from their stronghold in the Western Ghauts. II. Such was India about the time when Warren Hastings first landed on its shores,-the original inhabitants hidden away in the forests, and all the interlopers, Hindoo, Mohammedan and European, struggling one with another for supremacy. The final contest was to be between the French and the English, the two latest comers. Others took sides, fancying, no doubt, that they were fighting for their own ends, but, in reality, serving only as instruments in the hands of their more astute and powerful allies. 12. The war which broke out in Europe between France and England in 1744, raged also in India. There was at that time as Governor of Pondicherry, a French officer named Dupleix, capable and ambitious, who had made up his mind that France should be supreme over the whole country. Already the native populations, siding as they always did with the party they deemed the strongest, were willing to respond to his call. England was his chief obstacle, and against the English he bent all his energies. 13. The European war suited him exactly. He took prompt measures, and his success was immediate. On the arrival of their fleet the French took Madras, which was not restored until peace was made in 1748. An English attack on Pondicherry was repulsed. 14. Peace in Europe did not mean any lasting peace in India. Direct warfare being no longer possible, it was still easy to induce quarrels between native rulers, and to take opposite sides. The petty sovereignties which had been established by subordinates of the Mogul Empire served this purpose well. The Nizam-ul-Mulk at Hydrabad had been viceroy of the Deccan, and nominally, ruler of the whole of the South. Under him, in the lowlands known as the Carnatic, was his deputy the Nawab of Arcot. Still farther south Trichinopoli and Tanjore were the centres of Hindoo monarchies. When the Nizam-ul-Mulk died, his son Nasir Jung succeeded him; but a grandson, Mozuffer Jung, also laid claim to the throne, and it suited the purpose of Dupleix to support the cause of the latter, and, on his death, of his brother Salabat Jung. This 'war of the succession' is mentioned in the Essay, 7.26. 15. Meanwhile, at Arcot other disputes arose as to the succession of Nawabs or deputies, and in these also the French interfered. The fact was, Dupleix wanted both the Nizam, or viceroy, and the Nawab or viceroy's deputy, to be nominees of `his own-men who could be invested with all the outward signs of power, while he should himself be the real ruler, acting through them. After a series of struggles he succeeded beyond even his own expectations, and in the pride of his heart he built a city which he called Dupleix Fatihabad, which means the City of the victory of Dupleix, and in this city he erected an immense column inscribed with an account of his greatness. 16. Now, the Nawab whom Dupleix had placed on the throne at Arcot was Chunder Sahib, and the rival claimant, who had been displaced in 1748, was Mahommed Ali. The English, alarmed at the immense successes of Dupleix, and perceiving, at length, that the end must surely be their own expulsion from India, became active, and as a first step supported the claims of Mahommed Ali. They gave Clive the command of 200 Europeans and 300 Sepoys, and sent him to seize Arcot, which he promptly did, although the opposing garrison was much larger than his own force. It had been rumoured, however, that his five hundred men had marched with perfect fearlessness through a sharp thunderstorm, and this so impressed the natives that they left Arcot without a struggle. Returning later, they were defeated by Clive without loss of any of his men. 17. From this time the power of the French declined. Chunder Sahib gave himself up to the Rajah of Tanjore, who put him to death. The stately city and column which Dupleix had erected were destroyed. 18. The English were entirely successful against the Nawab of Arcot, but the Nizam Salabat Jung had still to be dealt with; and if Dupleix had been left alone by his Government it is by no means certain that the victory would have come very easily to the English. But Dupleix was recalled to France, and when he was gone Salabat Jung quarrelled with his French allies and appealed to the English for help. 19. While these successes were being achieved in the South, troubles were accumulating in the Bengal district, where the English had established themselves at Calcutta. Ali Vardi Khan had died in 1756 and been succeeded by his son, Surajah Dowlah, a sensual and cruel man, who at once picked a quarrel with the English. He marched on Calcutta, surprised the inhabitants and took it. Then occurred the awful tragedy of the 'Black Hole.' This 'Black Hole' was the military dungeon of Fort William, in size about 18 feet square. Into it, in the hottest season of the year, 146 English men and women were thrust and left for the night. Only a small grating gave inlet to the air, and the sufferings of these miserable creatures are beyond description. In the morning only 23 came out alive. It is due to Dowlah to say that this proceeding was taken without orders from him, and, in all likelihood, without his knowledge. 20. As soon as news of these events reached Madras, Clive and Watson were dispatched to the scene of the disaster. They recovered Calcutta, and war having again broken out between France and England, Clive seized Chandernagore also. Dowlah, enraged at this, considering it an infringement of his rights, sided with the French. The great battle of Plassy followed (June 23, 1757). Dowlah was utterly routed, and French ascendency in India was finally destroyed. Meer Jaffier was placed on the throne of Bengal, in consideration of payment by him to the English of large sums of money. Clive's reputation as a warrior was now so high, that his very name became a terror to his enemies. In 1758 he was appointed first English Governor of Bengal. 21. When the battle of Plassy was fought, Warren Hastings |