Greek, and those mostly confined to compound words like off-hand, withhold, knife-handle; but few reduplications of sound, and those confined to compound words like soulless, book-case.

In the Greek there are combinations of the elements indicated by pe (phth), as in plioic; by rμ (tm), as in rμáyev. In the Armenian there are syllables like stzges; in the Choctaw, like yummak; in the Welsh, like yspryd; in the Gaelic, like dhaibk; in the Erse, like ndcanadh; in the Icelandic, like njala; in Wendish, like szvetloszti.

Combinations like these are altogether undesirable, it would seem, in any language; at least, we can felicitate ourselves that they are not found in the English language.

Having, in this chapter, examined the phonetic elements of the language in their pronounceable and their unpronounceable combinations, we are prepared in the next chapter to examine them in their actual combinations in syllables and words.

QUESTIONS UNDER CHAPTER II.

1. What classes of phonetic elements are pronounceable in combination ? 2. What is said of the pronunciation of the consonantal sounds in combination? 3. Give three consonantal combinations which illustrate the answer to the last question. 4. What is said of a surd and of a sonant element in combination?

5. What is the reason that a surd and a sonant cannot be pronounced in combination! 6. What is said of a change of elements in pronunciation ?

7. Give some illustrations: what does avt become? &c.

8. In what three classes of words is the fact stated in the section respecting a change of elements of importance in its influence?

9. What is said of an accumulation of consonants?

10. What consonantal elements have eminently the power of blending with others? 11. What is said of the English in comparison with other languages in respect to combinations ?

12. Are difficult combinations, like those found in some languages, desirable?

CHAPTER III.

SECTION CXXXVIII.-COMBINATIONS IN SYLLABLES.

CERTAIN combinations of the phonetic elements form SYLLABLES. A syllable, in the spoken language, is one or more elementary sounds pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word or a part of a word.

A syllable, in the written language, is a letter, or a combination of letters, which represent a syllable in the spoken language, as, an, wis-dom.

elementary sounds, constituting These three sounds are reprewhich, together, constitute one

In the word man there are three one syllable in the spoken language. sented by the three letters m, a, n, syllable in the written language. The word syllable is from the Greek words oúv, with, and Xaße, to take.

Every syllable in the spoken language contains at least one vocal element. This element is either a vowel or a liquid; as, Pat, prism, pronounced priz-m, in two syllables.

Every syllable in the written language has at least one vowel, but this is not always sounded in pronunciation; as, in the last syllables of ta-ble, rea-son, e-vil, nev-er.

SECTION CXXXIX.-NAMES OF WORDS FROM THEIR DIVISION INTO

SYLLABLES.

Words consisting of single syllables are called monosyllables, from the Greek word μovós, alone; as, man, he. Words consisting of two syllables are called dissyllables, from the Greek word dis, twice; as, o-ver, un-der. Words consisting of three syllables are called trisyllables, from the Greek word rpis, thrice; as, dis-a-ble, fa-ther-less. Words consisting of more than three syllables are called polysyllables, from the Greek word moxis, many; as, fer-men-ta-tion.

SECTION CXL.-PRINCIPLES OF DIVISION.

The first principle for dividing words into syllables is etymological. A word made up of two words is naturally so divided as to keep the simple words separate in the pronunciation; as cut-water, turn-spit, break-fast. So, also, a word formed by the addition of a grammatical suffix to the primitive is naturally so divided as to separate the suffix in the pronunciation; as call-ing, love-ly, hunt-er. This principle is very extensive in its application.

2. The second principle is phonetical. Ease of pronunciation, or melody of sound, often determines the division of a word, in accordance with the phonology of the language. See Section (CXLIV.) In the application of these principles, certain general rules of syllabication have been laid down, which are subject to many exceptions.

SECTION CXLI.-RULES OF SYLLABICATION.

1. Compound words must be divided into the words which compose them; as, over-power, foot-man, con-template.

2. Grammatical terminations are generally separated from the primitive word; as teach-er, teach-est, vain-ly.

3. Two vowel elements coming together, and not forming a diphthong, are divided into separate syllables; as li-on, cru-el, de-ist.

4. In dissyllables, a single consonantal element between two vowel elements is joined to the latter; as pa-per, Ca-to, ro-ses. To this rule there are many exceptions; as ep-ic, pref-ace, up-on.

5. Two consonantal elements, pronounceable in combination between two vowels, must not be separated if the vowel of the preceding syllable is long; as fa-ble, sti-fle. But when they are unpronounceable in combination they must be divided; as ut-most, un-der,

in-sect.

6. In trisyllables, a single consonantal element between the penult and the antepenult (the last syllable but one and the last syllable but two) goes to the antepenult when accented; as mem-o-ry, sep-a- . rate.

The etymological principle is of very extensive application; and yet, in settling the comparative value of the two principles in particular cases, the phonetical principle prevails over it; as orthog-raphy, epiph-any, wri-ter, pref-ace, instead of ortho-graphy, epi-phany, writ-er, pre-face.

The objects aimed at in syllabication :

1. To enable the learners to discover the sounds of the words they are unacquainted with; or,

2. To show the etymology of the words; or,

3. To exhibit the exact pronunciation of them.

The maker of a spelling-book has the first object in view, an etymologist the second, an orthoepist the third, as in the preceding rules.

SECTION CXLII.--BREATH ARRESTED AND BREATH ESCAPING.

In pronouncing the sound of p in hap, the current of air is stopped by the closure of the lips. This may be called the sound of breath arrested. In pronouncing the sound of p in py, the current of air issues from the lungs by the opening of the lips. This may be called the sound of breath escaping.

Now what may be said of p may be said of all the other consonants, the words tongue, teeth, &c., being used according to the case. In the formation of syllables, the sound of breath arrested belongs to the first, and the sound of breath escaping belongs to the second syllable, as in the word happy. The whole consonant belongs neither, to one syllable nor to the other. Half of it belongs to each. The reduplication of the p in happy, the t in pitted, &c., is a mere point of spelling.

The combinations of sounds which are adopted in the language were chosen chiefly in reference to ease of pronunciation, while such as are difficult of utterance and disagreeable to the ear are rejected. As certain combinations of consonantal sounds (see Section LXIV.) are unpronounceable, so certain vowel sounds will not unite with each other. Accordingly, there must be in a word as many syllables as there are vowel sounds perceptible to the ear.

SECTION CXLIII.--COMBINATIONS IN WORDS.

A WORD in the spoken language is a syllable, or a combination of syllables, uttered by the human voice, expressing an idea, or the relation of an idea. A word in the written language is the letter, or the combination of letters, which represent these sounds in the spoken language; as a, art, under.

Words are divided by grammarians into PRIMITIVE and DERIVATIVE, SIMPLE and COMPOUND.

A primitive word is one which is not traceable to any other word in the language for its origin; as love, strong.

A derivative word is one which is traceable to some other word in the language for its origin; as, lovely, stronger.

A simple word is one which is not made up of other words; as, good, wise, York.

A compound word is one which is made up of other words; as Good-man, wise-acre, York-shire,

SECTION CXLIV.-THE MONOSYLLABIC CHARACTER.

The English language is eminently MONOSYLLABIC, as may be seen by a comparison with the Latin of terms in common use.

Here we have thirty-eight syllables in Latin to express what is expressed in English by sixteen.

The same monosyllabic principle is carried out in the construction of our verbs; as, to see, to hear, to taste, to touch, to smell, to walk, to run, to leap, to jump. Fire is said to burn, to glow, to scorch, to parch. Water is said to flow, to glide, to gush, to rush, to foam, to dash. In the sky we have the sun, moon, and stars. The earth yields grass, corn, hay, trees, wheat. Our ordinary food is bread, fowl, flesh, fish. Our fuel is wood, peat, coal, turf. To mourn, to sigh, to groan, to weep, to laugh, express affections of the mind. These, and words like these, form the staple of the English language.

"That is a step

On which I must fall down, or else o'erleap,
For in my way it lies. Stars, hide your fires;
Let not light see my black and deep desires.
The eye winks at the hand. Yet let that be
Which the eye fears, when it is done, to see."

SHAKESPEARE'S Macbeth.

Here we have fifty-two words, and but two dissyllables.

"For the Angel of Death spread his wings on the blast,
And breathed in the face of the foe as he passed;
And the eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill,
And their hearts beat but once, and for ever lay still.

And there lay the steed with his nostril all wide,
Aud through them there rolled not the breath of his pride;
And the foam of his gasping lay white on the turf,
And cold as the spray on the rock-beating surf."

BYRON'S Destruction of Sennacherib.

Of these eighty-nine consecutive words, seventy-nine are monosyllables, and seventy-seven of these monosyllables are of AngloSaxon origin. See HARRISON'S English Language.

In contrast to this, we have the two following polysyllabic words from the language of the Massachusetts Indians: Noowantammoonkanunonnash our loves; Kummogkodonattoottummooetiteaongannunnonash our question.

Having, in this chapter, examined the combinations of phonetic elements in syllables and words, we are prepared, in the next, to examine the syllables and words in relation to accent.

QUESTIONS UNDER CHAPTER III.

1. What is a syllable in the spoken language?

2. What is a syllable in the written language?

3. Give an example of each.

4. What is an essential part of a syllable in the spoken language?

5. What is an essential part of a syllable in the written language?

6. Give the names of the different classes of words from their division into syllables.

7. What are the principles upon which words are divided into syllables?

8. How are compound words and grammatical terminations treated in syllabication?

9. What is said of the etymological principle in its application?

10. What are the several objects aimed at in syllabication?

11. What is said of breath arrested and breath escaping?

1

12. What is a word in the spoken language? in the written langnage?

13. Into what classes are words divided?

14. What is a primitive word? a derivative word? a simple word? a compound word? Give a specimen of each.

15. What is the character of the English language in respect to syllables?

16. How many syllables are there severally in the two Indian words?

CHAPTER IV.

ACCENT.

SECTION CXLV.-CLASSICAL ACCENT.

ACCENT, from the Latin ad, and cano, to sing (accentus), in the classic sense, has reference to certain inflections of the voice, like musical notes, which distinguish certain syllables of a word, called the acute accent, the grave, and the circumflex. It signified a musical modulation of the voice. The precise manner in which these distinctions were made by the voice in the Greek language it is impossible for us to know, now that it has ceased to be a living language. We still, however, see the visible marks on the page, and we know that the acute accent (') can stand only on one of the last three syllables of a word; the circumflex (~) on one of the last two; the grave () only on the last.

SECTION CXLVI.-ENGLISH ACCENT.

Accent, in the English sense, is a particular stress of the voice upon certain syllables of words, which distinguishes them from others.