CHAPTER XI.

SECTION DXLIV.-RULES FOR THE CHOICE OF WORDS AND GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTIONS.

USAGE gives the law to language; usage,

Quem penes arbitrium est et jus et norma loquendi.`

But we are here met by the inquiry, What kind of usage?

RULE I.—It must be REPUTABLE usage. Here we are met by the inquiry, What is reputable usage? To this it may be safely answered, it is such usage as is found in the works of those who are regarded by the public as reputable authors.

RULE II.-It must be NATIONAL usage. It is not enough that a word or phrase is used in some county in England. It must be the general language of the nation at large.

RULE III.-It must be PRESENT usage. Old words are going out of use. New words are coming into use. It may not always be easy to determine what present usage is. A word lately coined may be more safely used in a newspaper than in grave history. An obsolete word can be used in poetry when it cannot be in prose. Pope's rule is a good one :

"In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold,

Alike fantastic if too new or old ;

Be not the first by whom the new is tried,

Nor yet the last to lay the old aside."

RULE IV. When the usage is divided as to any words and phrases, and when one of the expressions is susceptible of more than one meaning, while the other admits of only one, the expression which is UNIVOCAL is to be preferred to the one that is EQUIVOCAL. Thus, proposal for a thing offered or proposed is better than proposition, which has also another meaning. Thus we say, "He demonstrated the fifth proposition, and he rejected the proposal of his friend." the term primitive, as equivalent to original, is preferable to primary. The latter is synonymous with principal, and is opposed to secondary; the former is equivalent to original, and is opposed to derivative or acquired.

So

RULE V.-In doubtful cases, ANALOGY should be regarded. Thus it is better to use scarcely as an adverb than to use scarce.

Thus

RULE VI. When expressions are in other respects equal, that should be preferred which is most AGREEABLE TO THE EAR. authenticity is preferable to authenticalness.

RULE VII.-SIMPLICITY should be regarded. Thus accept and

approve are preferable to accept of and approve of.

RULE VIII.-ETYMOLOGY should be regarded.

Thus unloose

should, by analogy, signify to tie, just as to untie signifies to loose. To annul and disannul ought, by analogy, to be contraries, though they are used as synonymous.

- RULE IX.-All those expressions which, according to the established rules of the language, either have no meaning or involve a contradiction, or, according to the fair construction of the words, convey a meaning different from the intention of the speaker, should be dismissed. Thus, when a person says, "He sings a good song," the words strictly imply that the song is good; whereas the speake means to say, "He sings well."

SECTION DXLV. PURITY.

PURITY in the English language implies three things:
I. That the words be English, and not foreign.

II. That their construction be English.

III. That the words and phrases employed express the precise meaning which custom has assigned to them.

Accordingly, in three different ways it may be injured:

1. The words may not be. English. This fault has been called Barbarism.

2. The construction of the sentence may not be in the English idiom. This fault has the name of Solecism.

3. The words and phrases may not be employed to express the precise meaning which custom has affixed to them. This fault is called Impropriety.

SECTION DXLVI.-BARBARISM.

BARBARISM may consist in the use of words entirely obsolete; or in the use of words entirely new; or in the use of new formations and derivations.

1. "Their alliance was sealed by the nuptial of Henry with the daughter of the Italian prince."-GIBBON. Nuptial is not in use now, though it formerly was. Nuptials is the proper word. Such words as connexity, introitive, fixtious, are barbarisms.

6.6.

2. I got a little scary, and a good deal mad." Here scary improperly used for frightened.

is

3. His hauteur was intolerable." Here the French word hauteur is improperly used for the English word haughtiness.

4. Foreign phrases and foreign idioms, instead of English phrases and idioms, are barbarisms. When, however, we receive from a foreign nation an invention or discovery for which we have no term, we can then be justified in receiving the name along with the thing. In this way we introduce into the language such words as gong, gutta percha.

SECTION DXLVII.-SOLECISM.

The violation of any of the rules of syntax is a SOLECISM. The following are specimens:

1. "The zeal of the seraphim breaks forth in a becoming warmth of sentiments and expressions, as the character which is given us of him denotes that generous scorn and intrepidity which attends heroic

virtue."-Spectator. The solecism here consists in using a plural noun for a singular.

2. "The vice of covetousness is what enters deepest into the soul of any other." The solecism here consists in using the superlative for the comparative. It should be, "The vice of covetousness: is. what enters deeper into the soul than any other."

3. "There is one that will think himself obliged to double his kindness and caresses of me." Kindness ought not to be followed by of.

SECTION DXLVIII.-IMPROPRIETY.

IMPROPRIETY is an offence against Lexicography, as Barbarism is an offence against Etymology, and as Solecism is one against Syntax. 1. "There is no sort of joy more grateful to the mind of man than that which ariseth from the invention of truth." For invention, discovery should have been used.

2. "To make such acquirements as fit them for useful avocations." The impropriety here consists in using the word avocations for vocations. By the latter is meant a "trade," or "profession," or " calling;" by the former, whatever withdraws or diverts us from that business.

3. "The learned well bred, and the well bred sincere ;

Modestly bold, and humanly severe."-POPE.

Humanly is here improperly used for humanely.

Less

4. "No man had ever less friends and more enemies." refers to quantity, fewer to number. It should be "fewer friends."

EXERCISES UNDER PART VI.

SECTION DXLIX. SYNTACTICAL ANALYSIS.

By SYNTACTICAL ANALYSIS is meant that process by which the Syntactical Forms are distinguished and exhibited in accordance with the preceding syntactical rules.

1. Virtue rewards her followers.

EXAMPLES.

This is a simple sentence. Virtue is the subject; rewards is the predicate; followers is the object, which enlarges the predicate.

VIRTUE is a common abstract noun, of the third person, singular number, usually of the neuter gender, but here personified in the feminine gender. It is both the grammatical subject and the logical of the verb rewards; is in the nominative case. (Rule I. A noun used, &c.)

REWARDS is a verb of the weak conjunction, usually called regular, in the active voice, indicative mode, present tense, third person, singular number, and agrees with its subject nominative virtue. (Rule XXIV. A verb agrees, &c.)

HER is a personal pronoun, in the genitive case, and limits followers. (Rule II. A noun (or a pronoun) used to limit, &c.)

FOLLOWERS is a common noun (correlative with leader), in the third person, singular number, neuter gender, in the objective case, and governed by the transitive verb rewards. (Rule III. A noun depending, &c.)

2. He laboured faithfully in the cause, and he was successful.

This is a compound sentence, and contains two co-ordinate sentences. He is the subject of the first sentence; laboured is the predicate, which is enlarged by faithfully. He is the subject of the second sentence; successful is the predicate, taken with the copula tive verb was.

He is a personal pronoun, of the third person, masculine gender, of the singular number, in the nominative case. (Rule I. A noun used, &c.)

LABOURED is a verb of the weak conjugation, in the active voice, indicative mode, past tense, third person, singular number, and agrees with its subject he. (Rule XXIV. A verb agrees, &c.)

FAITHFULLY is an adverb, from the adjective faithful, and enters into combination with the verb laboured. (Rule XXXVIII. Adverbs modify, &c.)

In is a preposition, showing the relation between cause and laboured. (Rule XXXIX. Prepositions.)

THE is the definite article, and defines cause. (Rule IX. The article the, &c.) CAUSE is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, in the objective case, and governed by in. (Rule XXXIX. Prepositions.)

AND is a copulative conjunction, connecting two propositions. (Rule XL. Conjunctions, &c.)

HE as before, and is nominative to was. (Rule I. A noun used, &c.)

WAS is a verb, from the substantive verb am, was, been. It is in the indicative mode, past tense, third person, singular number, and agrees with its subject nominative. (Rule XXIV. A verb agrees, &c.)

SUCCESSFUL is an adjective of the positive degree, and is the predicate after was. (Rule V., Note I. Adjectives are used in two ways, &c.)

3. "Foul craven !" exclaimed Ivanhoe; "does he blench from the helm when the wind blows highest ?"

This contains a declarative sentence, an interrogative sentence, and an adverbial sentence. The last two constitute a compound sentence (complex), of which the last is subordinate to the other.

FOUL is an adjective in the positive degree, and belongs to craven. tives, &c.)

CRAVEN is a common noun, and is here a part of an exclamation. A noun in the nominative, &c.)

(Rule V. Adjec

(Rule I., Note IV.

EXCLAIMED is a verb in the past tense, in the active voice, from the transitive modern verb exclaim, and agrees with its subject nominative Ivanhoe. (Rule XXIV. A verb, &c.)

IVANHOE is a proper noun, in the third person, singular number, and is nominative to exclaimed, according to Rule I.

DOES BLENCH is a verb in the interrogative form, from the modern or weak verb blench, in the indicative mode, present tense, third person, singular number, according to Rule XXIV: A verb, &c.

HE is a personal pronoun, in the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative to does blench. (Rule I. A noun used, &c.)

FROM is a preposition, and expresses the relation between blench and helm. (Rule XXIX. Prepositions, &c.)

HELM is a common noun, in the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and is governed by the preposition from. (Rule III., Note IV.)

WHEN is an adverb of time, and modifies the verb blows. (Rule XXXVIII. Adverbs modify, &c.)

THE is the definite article, and limits the noun wind. (Rule VIII. The article, &c.) BLOWS is a verb, from the ancient verb blow, blew, blown. It is in the indicative mode, present tense, third person, singular number, and agrees with its subject nominative wind. (Rule XXIV. A verb agrees, &c.)

HIGHEST is an adjective in the superlative degree, and is a predicate with the verb blows. (Rule XXIX. The substantive verb, &c.)

4. High on a throne of royal state, which far
Outshone the wealth of Ormus or of Ind,
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold,
Satan exalted sat, by merit raised to that
Bad eminence.-MILTON.

This period is a compound sentence, composed of as many sentences as there are verbs. The principal sentence, in which the others are included, is a declarative sentence. The subordinate sentences are, the first, an adjective sentence; the second, an adverbial

sentence.

HIGH is an adjective in the positive degree, and qualifies Satan, some would say, but

in reality comes after sat in construction, to make part of the predicate. (Rule XXIX., note.)

Ox is a preposition, showing the relation between sat and throne, and governing throne. (Rule XXXIX. Prepositions, &c.)

A is an indefinite article, used according to Rule VIII. THRONE is a common noun, in the singular number, case, and governed by the preposition on. (Rule IL, ing, &c.)

The article, &c.

neuter gender, in the objective Note IV. A noun depend

Or is a preposition, showing the relation between throne and state, and governs state, (Rule XXXIX. Prepositions, &c.)

ROYAL is an adjective, and qualifies state. (Rule V. Adjectives, &c.)

STATE is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, objective case, neuter gender, and is governed by of. (Rule II. A noun, &c.) Let the pupil finish the analysis.

SECTION DL.-PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES IN CORRECT SYNTAX FOR

ANALYSIS.

The LEARNER is expected to ANALYSE all or a part of the following examples, and particularly to give the rules for the words in Italics :

:

1. “His power and the number of his adherents declining daily, he consented to a partition of the kingdom.'

2. "The fire-places were of a truly patriarchal magnitude, where the whole family, old and young, master and servant, black and white, nay, even the very cat and dog, enjoyed a community of privilege, and had each a prescriptive right to a corner.'

3. "On, then, all Frenchmen that have hearts in their bodies!"

4. "The Bastile is still to take": to be taken.

5. "Oh! that I could but baptise every heart with the sympathetic feeling of what the city-pent child is condemned to lose; how blank, and poor, and joyless must be the images which fill its infant bosom to that of the country one, whose mind

To that is an idiomatic expression occasionally met with, but it should not be encouraged, By filling out the ellipsis we get the more correct expression.

6. "All morning since nine there has been a cry, 'To the Bastile!'" How do you parse to the Bastile?

7. "Bethink thee, William, of thy fault,

Thy pledge and broken oath;

And give me back my maiden vow,

And give me back my troth."-MALLET.

8. "With a callous heart there can be no genius in the imagination or wisdom in the mind; and therefore the prayer, with equal truth and sublimity, says, 'Incline your hearts unto wisdom.' Resolute thoughts find words for themselves, and make their own vehicle. Impression and expression are relative ideas. He who feels deeply will express strongly. The language of slight sensations is naturally feeble and superficial."-Sir PHILIP FRANCIS. No and or are substituted for neither and nor.

9. “I must not close my letter without giving you one principal event of my history, which was, that (in the course of my late tour) I set out one morning before five o'clock, the moon shining through a dark and misty autumnal air, and got to the sea-coast time enough to be at the sun's levee. I saw the clouds and dark vapours open gradually to the right and left, rolling over one another in great smoky wreaths, and the tide (as it flowed gently in upon the sands), first whitening, then slightly tinged with gold and blue; and all at once a little line of insufferable brightness, that (before I can write these five words) was grown to half an orb, and now to a whole one too glorious to be distinctly seen. It is very odd it makes no figure on paper; yet I shall remember it as long as the sun, or, at least, as long as I shall endure. I wonder whether anybody ever saw it before? I hardly believe it."-GRAY. Upon what does to be depend? What kind of a phrase is all at once? How is sun parsed?

46 [ENG. LANG. 28.]