The English language, in its elements and forms

we seem to amplify the number, as if it were not unworthy of attention. If the article is inserted, the clause is equivalent to a double negative, and thus serves to amplify; if the article is suppressed, the expression has either a diminutive or a negative import.

Note IV.- In expressing comparison, when the indefinite article is suppressed before the second term, the latter becomes the predicate of the subject or first term. If, on the contrary, the second term is prefaced with the article, it forms the other subject of comparison. In the former case, the subject, as possessing different qualities in various degrees, is comparel with itself; in the latter, it is compared with something else. Thus, if we say, "He is a better soldier than scholar," omitting the article before the second term, the expression is equivalent to "he possesses the qualities of a soldier in a higher degree than those of a scholar," or "he is more warlike than learned." If, on the contrary, the second term is preceded by the article, it forms the other subject of comparison. Thus, "He would make a better soldier than a scholar," denotes that he would make a better soldier than a scholar would make."

Note V.-The indefinite article, like the definite, is employed to distinguish between things which are individually different, but have one generic name, and things which in reality are one and the same, but are characterised by different qualities. "A black and

a white horse," or "a black horse and a white," conveys the idea of two horses, the one black and the other white. "A black and white horse," on the contrary, denotes one horse, partly black and partly white. In general, the ellipsis of articles implies identity, whether with respect to person, subject, or predicate; the insertion or repetition of them, diversity.

Note VI.-The word to which A or AN refers must always be expressed; that to which ONE refers may be understood. Pointing to books, we cannot say, "Give me a or an;" but we may say, "Give me one." Moreover, if you say, "Give me one book," you are understood to say, "Give me a single book, and not two or more ;" but if you say, "Give me a book," you are supposed to say, "Give me a book, and not something else." Note VII.-When the meaning of a term is general, it should not be limited by the use of the article; as, "Man is born to trouble," that is, "all men." "God Almighty has given reason to a man, to be a light to him." The article here should be suppressed. "Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel?" It is not any wheel that Pope meant, but a known instrument of torture, or "the wheel."

Note VIII.-The indefinite article is applied to proper names; as,

"From liberty each nobler science sprung ;

A Bacon brightened, and a Spenser sung."

Note IX.-The form of the indefinite article depends on the sound by which it is followed. When it is followed by a vowel sound, it has the form of AN; as, An artist ; an eagle; an hour. When it is followed by a consonantal sound, it has the form of A; as, A lion; a union; a oneness. The form before the letter h is not uniform, as the practice of sounding or suppressing the aspirate is not uniform. See Section CCLXXXV. For the use of the articles with the present participle, see Section DXXI.

EXERCISES UNDER RULE VIII. (THE ARTICLE "AN" OR

"A.")

RULE VIII.-In my journey I travelled through a beautiful valley.-C. S.
Note I. They visit the north once a year for health and relaxation. C. S.

Note II. -a. He will come in a few hours to make arrangements for his voyage C. S.

b. And many a banner shall be torn,
And many a knight to earth be borne,

And many a shaft of arrows spent,

Ere Scotland's king shall pass the Trent. C. S.

c. Full many a gem, of purest ray serene,

The dark, unfathom'd caves of ocean bear;

Full many a flower is born to blush unseen,

And waste its sweetness on the desert air. C. S.

Note III.-He has few friends; he has a few friends. He has little money; he has a little money. C. S.

Note IV.-a. He is a better artist than seaman. C. S.

b. He would make a better artist than a seaman.

C. S.

Note V.-A black and white horse; a black and a white horse. Give equivalents for the two last expressions.

Note VI. Here are apples; give me one. C. S.

Note VII.-a. A man is the noblest work of creation. F. S.

b. He was doomed to ascend a scaffold. F. S.

Note VIII.—It needed a Newton to demonstrate the laws of gravitation. C. S.
Note IX.-There was an unanimity that was very gratifying. F. S.

SECTION CCCCXCVI.-SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE THE.' RULE IX.—The article THE, called the Definite Article, is used before nouns, both in the singular and plural number, to specify and define their meaning; as, "The President" "the Senate ;" "the Representatives."

Note I. The omission of the definite article, when the sense is restricted, creates ambiguity; as, "All words which are signs of complex ideas furnish matter of mistake." This may mean either that all words are signs of complex ideas, and furnish matter of mistake, or that such a part of them as are the signs of complex ideas furnish matter of mistake. The ambiguity is removed by the use of the article; as, "All the words which are signs of complex ideas furnish matter of mistake."

Note II. The definite article is likewise used to distinguish between things which are individually different, but have one generic name, and things which are, in truth, one and the same, but are characterised by several qualities: "The red and white roses were most admired." It may be doubtful whether two kinds of roses are here indicated, or roses with two colours. By repeating the article the ambiguity is removed: "The red and the white roses." In this phraseology two kinds of roses are indicated. The expres sion, “The ecclesiastical and secular powers concurred in this measure," is ambiguous so far as language can make it so. By repeating the article, or varying the phraseology, the ambiguity is removed : "The ecclesiastical and the secular powers;" or, "the ecclesiastical powers and the secular;" or, "the ecclesiastical powers and the secular powers."

Note III.-When an additional epithet or description of the same subject is intended, the definite article should not be employed. For this reason the following sentence is faulty: The Apostle James, the son of Zebedee and the brother of St. John, would be declared the apostle of the Britons." It should be, "and brother of St. John." When a diversity of persons or a change of subject is intended to be expressed, the definite article is necessarily employed; as, "Cincinnatus the dictator, and the master of the horse, marched against the Equi." Were the article omitted, the expression would imply that the dictator and the master of the horse were one and the same individual.

Note IV.-In general, it may be sufficient to prefix the article, whether definite or indefinite, to the former of two words in the same construction; as, "There were many hours both of the night and day which he could spend without suspicion in solitary thought." It might have been of the night and of the day. And, for the sake of emphasis, we often repeat the article in a series of epithets; as, "He hoped that this title would secure him an ample and an independent authority." The article is repeated before titles; as, The Right Honourable the Lord Mayor."

Note V.-The definite article is often placed before an adjective when the noun is understood; as, Cowards die many times, the valiant never taste of death but once." Note VI. The definite article gives energy and precision when applied to comparatives and superlatives; as, "The more frequently I see him, the more I respect him ;" "at the worst, I could incur but a gentle reprimand;" "for neither if we eat are we the better; neither if we eat not are we the worse.' See Section CCLXXXVII.

Note VII.-As proper names are already determinate, they do not admit the article, except, 1. When a particular family is distinguished; as, "He was a Stuart," or, "of the family of the Stuarts." 2. When eminence is implied; as, A Brutus;" meaning a patriotic person. 3. When a common name is understood; as, "The (river) Thames." Note VIII.-The use of the definite article before the relative which has become obsolete: "Where there was a garden, into the which he entered."-John xviii. 1. Note IX.-Formerly, to express death in general, authors would say the death: "I will not do it to the death."-SHAKESPEARE. "the So expressions like "the Douglas," Lady Anne," were in use.

Note X.--The definite article is sometimes used instead of a possessive pronoun; as, "He looked him full in the face," that is, "his face."

Note XI. The definite article, or some other definitive, is generally prefixed to the antecedent to the pronouns who or which in restrictive clauses; as, "He is the man who rescued the child from the flames."

Note XII.-Articles often precede quotations from foreign languages; as, γνῶθι σεαυτόν;” “ a ne plus ultra.”

The

Note XIII.-As showing the value of the article in giving definiteness to the English language, the following phrase may be cited from the Latin language, which has no article. Filius regis is susceptible of four different meanings: A son of a king; a son of the king; the son of a king; the son of the king.

Note XIV. The article and the demonstrative adjective pronoun both individualise a general term to which it is prefixed. But, in addition to this, the demonstrative marks some special opposition between individuals. When we say, "The man is good," there is no special opposition between different individuals implied by the word the, though there may be by each of the other words; but when we say "That man is good," we imply no opposition to the other words in the sentence, but only to the word that. See Section CCLXXXVI.

Note XV.-The definite article is used to express an object of eminence, or the only one of the kind; as, "The Queen prorogued Parliament in person ;" extensive knowledge is necessary for the orator."

EXERCISES UNDER RULE IX. (THE ARTICLE THE.")

RULE IX.-a.

The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power,

And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave,
Await alike the inevitable hour;

The paths of glory lead but to the grave. C. S.

b. Beware of drunkenness it impairs an understanding; wastes an estate; destroys a reputation; consumes the body; and renders the man of the highest parts the common jest of the meanest clown. F. S.

c. All the men who were present voted against the proposition. C. S.

Note I. In all cases of proscription, the universal practice is to direct juries, by analogy, to the statute of limitations, to decide against incorporeal rights which for many years have been relinquished. F. S.

Note II.-a. The red and white bonnets were much admired. Give the ambiguous equivalents.

b. Like a householder who bringeth out of his treasures things new and old. F. S. Note III.-Thomas, the brother of the general, and the colonel of a regiment, led the attack. Give the ambiguous equivalents.

Note IV.-a. He is a just, wise, generous, and influential man. C. S.

b. The life of the former was almost a perpetual journey; and as he possessed the various talents of the scholar and the statesman, he gratified his curiosity in the discharge of his duty.-GIBBON. C. S.

Note V.-Wise men are governed by their reason, the foolish by their passions. C. S. Note VI.-a. At the best, his gift was but a poor offering, considering his estate. C. S. b. At most, he would have had to travel only three miles farther. C. S. c. But happy they, the happiest of their kind, Whom gentle stars unite. C. S.

Note VII. He was a Wellington. He was a Cato.

The Principalities. C. S.

Note VIII.-Those things in the which I will appear unto thee. F. S.
Note IX.-Bear Worcester to the death. F. S.
Note X.-He received the blow in the breast.

Note XI. He is the orator who will address the people this evening.
Note XII.-The tout ensemble. The ultima ratio regum.

C. S.

Note XIII.-Amicus imperatoris. Give the several meanings.
Note XIV. The man is bad; that man is bad.

Note XV.-The Queen will deliver her speech to-morrow.

SECTION CCCCXCVII.-PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON THE ADJECTIVE.

In these exercises the pupil is expected,

a. To mention the several adjectives in the example.

b. To state whether the example affords an instance of correct syntax or of false.

c. To repeat the rule or note which sanctions or condemns the use of each adjective. See models, Sections CCCCLXXXIX. and DXLIX.

1. We may reason very clearly, and exceedingly strong, without knowing that there is such a thing as a syllogism.

2. By discussing what relates to each particular in their order, we shall better understand the subject.

3. Let us, however, hope the best rather than fear the worst, and believe that there was never a right thing done nor a wise one spoken in vain, although the fruit of them may not spring up in the place designated nor at the time expected.-W. S. LANDOR.

4. My father had been a leading mountaineer, and would still maintain the general superiority in skill and hardihood of the above boys (his own faction) over the below boys (so they were called), of which party his contemporary had been chieftain.-CHARLES LAMB.

5. I do not know what I may seem to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself with now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, while the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.-Sir ISAAC NEWTON.

6. Higher, higher still we climb

Up the mount of glory,

That our names may live through time

In our country's story.-MONTGOMERY

7. Pardon me, gentlemen, confidence is a plant of slow growth in an aged bosom.-Lord CHATHAM.

8. The new set of curtains did not correspond with the old pair of blinds.

9. The shortest and the best prayer that we can address to Him who knows our wants is this Thy will be done.-BOLINGBROKE.

10. Be you assured that the works of the English chisel fall not more short of the wonders of the Acropolis, than the best productions of modern pens fall short of the nervous and overwhelming compositions of those that resistless fulmined over Greece.Lord BROUGHAM.

11. Mark, I do beseech you, the severe simplicity, the subdued tone of the diction in the most touching parts of the old man eloquent's loftiest passages.-Lord BROUGHAM.

SECTION

CCCCXCVIII.--PROMISCUOUS

EXAMPLES OF THE PROPER AND

IMPROPER USE OF THE ARTICLES.

a. "And the Pharisees and Scribes murmured." The should be inserted before "Scribes," to signify that they were a class distinct from the Pharisees.

7. "Howbeit, when he, the Spirit of Truth, shall come, he will guide you into all truth." The passage should have run, all the truth, that is, the truth concerning the Christian religion.

C. "There are few words in the English language which are employed in a more loose and circumscribed sense than those of the fancy and the imagination."-Spectator. The words those of the are worse than superfluous.

d. "If I but stretch this hand,

I heave the gods, the ocean, and the land."-POPE.

The objects here are distinct, and are properly marked as such by the repetition of the definite article.

e. "A cool head, an unfeeling heart, and a cowardly disposition, prompted him, at the age of nineteen, to assume the mask of hypocrisy, which he never laid aside." The repetition of the article distinctly marks the three properties in Augustus which Gibbon wished his readers to notice.

f. "But the great triumphs of modern ingenuity and art are those astronomical clocks and watches, in which the counted vibrations of a pendulum or balance-wheel have detected periodical inequalities even in the motion of the earth itself."—ARNOTT'S Physics. A pendulum is not a balance-wheel. The distinction should have been marked by the insertion of the article a before the word balance-wheel.

CHAPTER IV.

SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.

SECTION CCCCXCIX.-PET.SONAL PRONOUNS.

RULE X.-PERSONAL PRONOUNS agree with their Antecedents, or the nouns which they represent, in Gender, Number, and Person; as, "Dryden then betook himself to a weapon at which he was not likely to find his match;" "If Lady Alice knew her guests to have been concerned in the insurrection, she was undoubtedly guilty of what in strictness is a capital crime."

Note I.—When the Antecedent is a Collective noun conveying the idea of Unity, the pronoun must agree with it in the Singular number; as, The Court gave its decision in favour of the plaintiff."

Note II.—When the Antecedent is a Collective noun, conveying the idea of Plurality, the pronoun must agree with it in the Plural number; as, "The Senate were divided in their opinions."

Note III.-When the Antecedent is a noun denoting a young Child, or an Animal which is masculine or feminine, without any regard to sex, the pronoun must agree with it in the Neuter gender; as, "That is a beautiful child; how old is it?" "The robin builds its nest near the habitations of men."

Note IV.-When the Antecedent, in the Singular number, is qualified by the adjective many and the article a, it may sometimes have the pronoun agree with it in the Plural number; as, "But yesterday I saw many a brave warrior, in all the 'pomp and circumstance of war,' marching to the battle field. Where are they now? Note V.-When the Antecedent, in the plural form, indicates a single object, the pronoun is Singular; as, "Young's Night Thoughts is worthy a perusal. It is a work of genius.'

Note VI.-When the Antecedent is in fact singular, but not expressed, the personal pronoun we is used by monarchs, reviewers, and authors generally, instead of the pronoun I; as, "To promote the prosperity of this kingdom, we send forth this our proclamation;" we owe an apology to the public for not noticing this work on its first publication."

EXERCISES UNDER RULE X. (PERSONAL PRONOUNS.)

RULE X.- -a. I know these men, said Monmouth; they will fight. If I had but them, all would go well. C. S.

b. Every man in the community, whatever may be their condition, should contribute to the common weal. F. S.

c. A milk-white hind, immortal and unchanged,
Fed on the lawns, and in the forest ranged:

Without unspotted, innocent within,

She feared no danger, for she felt no sin.-DRYDEN. C. S.

Note I.-The committee was divided in its opinions. F. S.

Note II. The crowd was so great that the judges with difficulty made their way through them. F. S.

Note III.-a. The infant put its loving hands upon its mother's neck. C. S. b. The deer, pursued by the hounds, hurried back to its old haunts. C. S.

Note IV.-In Hawick twinkled many a light;

Behind him soon they set in night. C. S.

Note V.--Read "Blackstone's Commentaries." It will furnish you with a clear statement of the doctrine. C. S.

Note VI. We have taken up this book chiefly for the purpose of presenting our own views on the subject of which it treats. C. S.

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