gorical, from a pure into a modal one; and by a perfect sentence I here mean one that either enunciates some truth, or expresses some passion with its object. Thus, even 'fly,' in the imperative mode, is a perfect sentence, for it implies an agent and an act. "Fly quickly.' Here a perfect sentence is converted into a modal one by the addition of the adverb. A part of a perfect sentence is understood when the mind supplies what is necessary to complete the sentence, as in the lines of Sir WALTER SCOTT:

6

"On, Stanley! on!

Were the last words of Marmion.'

Here the adverb on manifestly refers to some verb understood, as 'march,' rush.'"-Sir JOHN STODDART on the Philosophy of Language.

SECTION CCCLXII.-ORIGIN OF ADVERBS.

"Omnis pars orationis migrat in adverbium." speech is capable of becoming an adverb."

Thus the words much and very, scarce and stark, originally adjectives, become adverbs. The words adrift and atwist are adverbs derived from the participles of the verbs drifan, twisan. The words here, there, hence, whence, are adverbs derived from pronouns. The words once, twice, thrice, are adverbs derived from numerals. The words yet, ado, together, are adverbs which seem to be derived from the verbs get, do, and gather. The words while, to-morrow, yesterday, originally substantives, are used as adverbs.

1. ADVERBS ENDING IN "LY."-Ly, Anglo-Saxon lic, was once an independent word, the Anglo-Saxon lic like. Words of this termination were, in Anglo-Saxon, compound adjectives. So, in Old English, we have the adjective eorthliche, earthly; ferliche, strange. In modern English there are words such as godly, lonely, lovely. Godly is equivalent to God-like. According to the present habit of the English language, an adjective is converted into an adverb by annexing ly; as, bright, brightly.

2. ADVERBS WITH THE PREFIX "A."-1. In some instances a stands in the place of the prepositions in or on; as, alive, anciently written on lyve, i.e., in life, or in a living state. Aloud was anciently written on loud; as, "On loud he speired what art thou?" 2. It was formerly expressed by the proposition of; as, anew, anciently written of new, as we now say of late. 3. It is the article a; as, awhile, i.e., a time. 4. It is part of the pronominal adjective all; as, alone, anciently written all one, i.e., absolutely one. 5. It is corrupted from the participial prefix ge or ye; as, adrift. The prefix a belongs to many sea terms; as, aboard, ashore, &c., and to many other ancient and modern words; afire in fire, on fire; ablaze on blaze; asleep in sleep.

=

SECTION CCCLXIII.ADVERBIAL PRONOUNS.

Here, hence, hither, are in their origin related to the pronoun he. There, thence, and thither are in their origin related to the or that, as are where, whence, whither, to who or what. Then, when, are also related to that and what. Why is related to who, as also is how. Than and thus are severally related to that and this. The words here, there, where, united with other words, form a variety of compound adverbs; as, hereafter, hereabout, hereat, hereby, herein, hereinto, hereof, hereon, hereupon, hereto, hereunto, heretofore, herewith, thereof, whereupon, &c.

The following distinction should be noticed concerning interrogatives. If you ask who, which, what, how many, you inquire concerning some noun; but if you ask where, whence, whither, when, how often, you inquire concerning some verb. Hence the propriety of calling the class which relates to nouns Pronouns, and the class that relates to verbs Adverbs.

SECTION CCCLXIV.-ADVERBS FROM CONCRETE SUBSTANCES.

66

Adverbs formed from concrete substances must be carefully distinguished from the ordinary cases or uses of such substances. Home, "to the house," an ancient accusative, to be distinguished from the ordinary accusative in "he loves his own home." Always, at all times," the accusative of time; compare the ordinary accusative in "he tries all ways of doing mischief." Sometimes," at some times," the accusative of time; compare the ordinary accusative in "he remembered some times of great distress." Awhile, "a while," the accusative of time, compare the ordinary accusative in " he spent a long while." Needs, " from necessity," an ancient adverbial genitive from need. Noways, "in no manner," an ancient adverbial genitive from no way. Nightly, " by night," "every night," with adverbial suffix ly. Beside," by side," i.e., moreover; compare sat by the side." Between, "by twain," i.e., in the intermediate space; compare "by twain he did fly." Away," on way," i.e., at a distance; compare " he stopped on the way.”

SECTION CCCLXV.-ADVERBS FROM CASES.

"he

Seldom is the old dative of the adjective seld. Whilom is the dative of the substantive while. Else, unawares, eftsoons, by rights, are genitive forms of adjectives. Needs (as in needs must go) is the genitive case of a substantive. Once, twice, thrice, are the genitive forms of numerals. Little, less, well, are neuter accusatives of adjectives. Athwart is a neuter accusative. The neuter accusa

tive is a common source of adverbs in all tongues.

SECTION CCCLXVI.

ADVERBS HAVING THE SAME FORM AS ADJECTIVES.

In Anglo-Saxon the adverb was usually formed from the adjective by the addition of e; as, georn and geornlic, earnest; georne and geornlice, earnestly: sweotol, manifest; sweotole and sweotolice, manifestly swidh and swidhlic, great; swidhe and swidhlice, greatly.

Whence

It is exactly by dropping this adverbial termination e, especially where the connection in meaning of the adverb and of the adjective is not immediately obvious, that in English many adverbs are found agreeing in form with the adjectives from which they are derived; as, 1. Anglo-Saxon clan, adjective, and clæne, adverb. English clean, adjective and adverb. The use of the adverb clean, signifying "entirely," is found in Joshua iii. 17; Psalm lxxvii. 8, &c. Its connection with the adjective clean, signifying "pure," is not obvious at first view. This use of the adverb clean is now deemed inelegant. The form cleanly is used for the adverb in the more obvious senses.

2. Anglo-Saxon clanlic, adjective, and clanlice, adverb. Whence English cleanly, adjective and adverb. The form cleanlily is objectionable on euphonic grounds, and is never used.

3. Anglo-Saxon fæst and festlic, adjective, and fæste and fæstlice, adverb, German fest, adverb. Whence English fast, adjective and adverb. The form fastly is not used at all.

The form

4. Anglo-Saxon heag and healic, adjective, and heage and healice, adverb. Whence English high, adjective and adverb. high as an adverb is now nearly superseded by the form highly.

5. Anglo-Saxon heard and heardlic, adjective, and hearde and heardlice, adverb. Whence English hard, adjective and adverb. The forms hard and hardly are both used as adverbs, but with discrimi nation.

6. Anglo-Saxon hlud, adjective, and hlydde, adverb. Whence English loud, adjective and adverb. The form loud, as an adverb, is found in Nehemiah xii. 42; but both forms, loud and loudly, are now used.

7. Anglo-Saxon lang or long, adjective, and lange or longe and longlice, adverb. Whence English long, adjective and adverb. The form longly is not used at all.

8. Anglo-Saxon læt or lat, adjective, and late or late and lætlice, adverb. Whence English late, adjective and adverb. The form lately is also used in the sense of recently.

9. Anglo-Saxon_riht and rihtlic, adjective, and rikte and rihtelice, adverb. Whence English right, adjective and adverb. The forms right and rightly are both used as adverbs, but with discrimination.

10. Anglo-Saxon sar and sarlic, adjective, and sare and sarlice, adverb. Whence English sore, adjective and adverb. The forms sore and sorely are now both used as adverbs.

11. Anglo-Saxon seft or soft and seftlic, adjective, and sefte or softe, adverb. Whence English soft, adjective and adverb. The

form soft, as an adverb, is found in poetry, which often employs antiquated forms; as, " And soft unto himself he sayed."-CHAUCER. "Soft sighed the flute."-THOMSON. But this form, in prose, is entirely superseded by softly.

12. Anglo-Saxon thic, adjective, and thicce and thiclice, adverb. Whence English thick, adjective and adverb. The forms thick and thickly are now both used as adverbs.

13. Anglo-Saxon wid, adjective, and wide, adverb. Whence English wide, adjective and adverb. The forms wide and widely are now both used as adverbs.

14. Anglo-Saxon yfel and yfellic, adjective, and yfele, adverb. Whence English evil or ill, adjective and adverb. The form evilly or illy, which was used in one stage of the English language, is now obsolete. In the following example, the adverbial termination seems to be retained in pronunciation both in the adjective and in the adverb :— 15. Anglo-Saxon hræd and hrædlic, adjective, hrædhe and hrædlice, adverb. Whence English ready, adjective and adverb. The forms ready and readily are both used as adverbs, but with discrimination. That this mode of forming adverbs has extended itself to a few adjectives of French or Latin origin is not surprising; as, English clear, adjective and adverb (compare French clair, Latin clarus and clare); just, adjective and adverb (compare French juste, Latin justus and juste).

These comparisons, if rightly made, lead to the following conclusions, which throw light on some points still mooted by writers cn English grammar.

1. In examples like the following, certain forms, which some have claimed to be adjectives, are really adverbs, for they once had the termination peculiar to this class of words:

"To stick fast in mire;" compare Anglo-Saxon sticode fæste, stuck fast, with the adverbial termination.

"Correct thy heart and all will go right;" compare Anglo-Saxon rihte with the adverbial termination.

"Favours came thick upon him;" compare Anglo-Saxon feollon thicce, fell thick, with the adverbial termination.

"Open thine hand wide;" compare Anglo-Saxon wide with the adverbial termination.

2. This use of certain adjectives, without change of form, as adverbs, has descended to us fairly from our ancestors, and is not to be reprobated as an innovation in language.

3. The apparent poetic use of adjectives for adverbs is to be explained on the principle that the poets delight in antique form3. This use is often found in poetry, where it is obsolete in prose; as, "Drink deep or taste not the Pierian spring."-POPE.

"Slow tolls the village clock."-BEATTIE.

"And louder yet, and yet more dread,

Swells the high trump that wakes the dead."-SCOTT.

SECTION CCCLXVII.-ADVERBIAL PHRASES.

The principal office of the adverb is to modify the meaning of adjectives and verbs, and its secondary office is to modify adverbs. The same offices are performed by certain phrases or combinations of words; as, "He struck at random." Here at random modifies the verb struck: "This happened many days afterward." Here many days modifies the adverb afterward, and afterward modifies the verb "happened." These adverbial phrases, inasmuch as they perform the office of single words, might be thrown into the form of single words, as has been done in such words as heretofore, howsoever. By an adverbial phrase, then, is meant any combination of words which in a complex sentence may stand for an adverb.

SECTION CCCLXVIII.-COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

Certain adverbs are capable of taking an inflection, namely, that of the comparative and superlative degrees; as, Well, better, best; ill, worst; little, less, least; much, more, most; soon, sooner, soonest; often, oftener, oftenest; long, longer, longest.

Adverbs ENDING IN LY are compared by more and most; as brightly, more brightly, most brightly.

Other adverbs generally, in the meaning they express, have no degrees of intensity, and are therefore incapable of comparison.

SECTION CCCLXIX.-CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS.

Adverbs are usually divided into various classes, according to the nature of the modification which they denote; as, Adverbs of TIME, PLACE, NUMBER, DEGREE, MANNER. This division is logical rather than etymological.

I. Adverbs of TIME, or those which answer to the question When? or How often? 1. Of time present: Now, yet, to-day, presently, instantly. 2. Of time past: Yesterday, already, lately, heretofore, hitherto, since, ago, erewhile, erst. 3. Of time to come: Henceforth, hereafter, by-and-by, soon, erelong. 4. Of time relative: When, then, while, whilst, before, after, till, until, betimes, early, late. 5. Of time absolute: Ever, always, aye, never. 6. Of time repeated: Often, oft, sometimes, seldom, rarely.

II. Adverbs of PLACE are those which answer to the questions Where? Whither? or Whence? These three words answer to the idea,-1. Of rest in a place. 2. The idea of motion toward a place. 3. The idea of motion from a place. The manner in which different languages express these ideas may be seen in the following table: