sufficient, because unaided, attempt of the human mind to free mankind from the thraldom of Mythology and Error, we shall at once proceed to a cursory investigation of modern philosophy as a preliminary to what we have to allege respecting positive belief and positive faith.

Modern mental philosophy, as freed from the yoke of the schoolmen, dates from Descartes, who proclaims the doctrine of free inquiry, or of Rationalism. The veracity of thought, the certitude of self-consciousness is victoriously displayed by Descartes; when allowing free and open ingress to the most unbounded scepticism, he finds in certitude of Thought a bar which doubt can never overleap. This certitude, expressed by "I think, therefore I am," (cogito, ergo sum,) proceeds from an innate principle which assures man that he exists as a thinking being, and delivers him from all doubt, whilst it certifies at the same time the existence of an object of thought, a something beyond him, or extended, or matter. The same innate principle, or Reason, shows us that we know nothing of things, but by the qualities they possess. All things which possess quality, says Descartes, is a substance and exists, but that substance is alone perfect which exists independent of all others. Thought is therefore the quality which assures us of the existence of a thinking something, a substance or existing being termed the mind; and Extension, taken in its widest sense, constitutes the essential quality of body or matter. But the mind is no less certain of its own imperfectibility than of its own existence; a something perfect then exists, for the idea exists in our mind; and this perfection constitutes the essence of the divine substance which we name God. In Perfection, all quality is found; therefore Descartes ascribes Infinity to God alone, whilst he

only admits the notion of the indefinite to be that which matter and mind can inspire. The doubt, which the certitude of our imperfection leaves in the mind in spite of the certitude of Existence, is at once dispelled by this rational conception of the perfect Being. We are then fully assured, for we know we have a Maker, and his perfection proves that He is no deceiver. The Cartesian doctrine is thus complete: Matter,-Mind,-God, constitute the objects of all human Thought. Reason is here the umpire. Reason convinced of her own imperfection finds refuge in that Perfection, of which the "idea is imprinted on the mind as the mark of the Maker." Causation and design are included in the notion of Perfection. Motion is impressed on created substance by the Perfect Maker, and all things occur according to the form and time allotted. The knowledge of these laws of motion, the knowledge of the relative conditions of the mechanism of mind and matter, constitutes all Science, all Knowledge. These conditions exist in virtue of Supreme Will, and not in consequence of their own inherent properties. Supreme Will is ever acting, and thus the Universe may be considered as incessantly renewed. As, however, the Cartesian views of the Deity will find place amongst the observations in which it will be indispensable to enter when treating of Divine Faith, we have not here to discuss that important question. We shall merely remark, by the way, that Descartes is condemned by his own theory, when considering the notion of the Divinity to be grounded on that of Supreme Perfection, and as such so entirely above all human apprehension as to admit of none of the human ideas of Time and Place; all duration and all space as they appear to Man disappearing in Almighty Power, he afterwards introduces the Deity, as acting incessantly, as renewing every moment the Creation willed by Him. (See Hamilton, &c.)

Descartes realizes in his doctrines concerning Matter and Mind what, until him, had been considered as impossible, the complete separation of Mind and Matter. These constitute the two poles, as it were, of his whole system of the Universe, but the separation is so effectual, that in the eye of Reason, it is impossible that they can ever be united. Such a thorough distinction, therefore, was not admitted by subsequent thinkers, who all attempt to fill up the chasm so deeply opened. The essence of Mind being considered as Thought, Mind alone is Spirit, and the Cartesian philosophy must therefore be fully admitted to be Spiritualism. As, however, his successor, Leibnitz, recognized in Matter Forces or Powers, where Descartes only perceives mechanical acts, Descartes is often taunted with having inculcated mere mechanism. The fact is, that Leibnitz spiritualized, as it were, Matter, whilst Descartes, consistently with his doctrine, conceived Spirit as only existing with Thought.

common sense.

We must, however, refrain from entering further into the unbounded field before us, and limit our observations to the point at issue, viz., the Cartesian doctrines respecting self-evident principles and those of Absolute certitude, we have seen, only exists according to Descartes in Absolute Perfection. The mind assured of relative existence which authorizes it to assert "I think" or "I am," is at the same time convinced by the innate sentiment of its own imperfection that Supreme Perfection is. Thence the Cartesian doctrine, that absolute certitude can never be attained unless the mind be centred in supreme Perfection. The primary Faith of man or self-consciousness is a relative feeling. The term itself does not exist in Descartes' works, and by many thinkers, Dr. Hamilton amongst others, this is rather an advan

common sense.

tage, as savoring less of Ontology, or imaginary metaphysical entities. His definition is, however, sufficiently accurate to render all that can be conceived of selfconsciousness or of consciousness, if the addition of self be considered redundant. We acquire self-knowledge, says Descartes, by means of the notion of self, which represents myself to myself. (L'idée en moi, qui me represente moi-même à moi-même.) This constitutes the upshot and issue, as well as the primary faith, of all human certitude. The union between mind and body he conceives to be operated by the agency of His words are the following: "The mind or spirit (L'esprit) does not immediately receive its impressions from all parts of the body; it is in immediate connection with the brain only, or perhaps with one of the smallest parts of that organ, viz., that in which is developed the faculty they term common sense, which faculty, whenever it is disposed in the same manner, always produces on the mind the same impression, however variously disposed the other organs of the body may be, as experience sufficiently testifies, so as to render useless further details; but which is still more evident when certain sensations formerly felt in a limb are still felt, although we are deprived of the limb." Descartes denies that it is the sense of sight that gives us the assurance that the same piece of wax we may see is the same we saw before. The common way of speaking he maintains to be incorrect when it is said, "that we see it is the same piece of wax." The right expression being, that we judge it to be the same piece of wax. A philosopher, (un homme qui tâche d'éléver sa connaissance au de là du commun,) Descartes tells us, ought to be ashamed to adduce such kinds of vicious locutions, as proofs of the doubtful nature of things. In this case, Descartes maintains

that it is intelligence that informs him of the nature and qualities of the bit of wax, far better than the senses "or at least than by what is termed common sense, or the faculty of imagining, for this common sense we have, is common with all the brute creation which know of figure and color, whilst human intelligence alone can divest the piece of wax of its outward form and investigate its nature." (2d Meditation.)

Very far from assimilating the sensations acquired by the senses to "certitude," because they are given by Nature, Descartes is quite of the contrary opinion. These natural sensations he terms "the inclination or bent of nature," but it is Reason or "the Light of Nature" that really informs us of the object perceived. The natural bent merely inclines us, he says, to believe it, but it is natural light that makes known the truth. These terms, he remarks, are vastly different. It is natural light that dissipates the gloom which doubt casts around us: to natural light we owe the assurance of our own existence, and we possess no other faculty or power by which we may be enabled to distinguish Truth from Falsehood. The natural bent, on the contrary, is continually inclining us away, sometimes inducing us to act well, sometimes to act ill. Nor indeed are the ideas which we receive from without always similar to the reality existing, and which they represent; for we have two notions of the sun: one which tells us that it is very small, and another that speaks of its immensity; and the latter, acquired by natural light, is by far the truest.

Although the connection between Mind and Matter occurs through the agency of the senses and common sense," or the imagining faculty," yet according to the Cartesian doctrine no direct causation takes place. All phenomena considered generally as Causes