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duce such awkward apologies for want of lucidity as, "This character, I should have mentioned, was in the hero's secret," or "I have forgotten to state that A. was a detective, and consequently skilled in sifting matters of the kind". A teacher might usefully read a short story to his class, bringing out the steps in the progress of the narrative, and making sure that the class understands their bearing on its development. These points might then be written out seriatim and the students set to reconstruct the story. This is a most effective exercise in composition. The merits that should be looked for in such essays are conciseness, just emphasis on the chief stages of the plot, and the sense of a proper climax at the end.

Under the head of narration may be placed biographical essays on great men. In such compositions the natural order of events-birth, education, early life, the story of his career and death, with a final estimate of your subject's character or an appreciation of his work -should be followed. The first three points-birth, education, early life-should, as a rule, be rapidly passed over, and the largest portion of the essay devoted to the career and special fame of the character described. Some appreciation of the work or character of the personage you are dealing with-whether he be a great general, a notable statesman, or a distinguished author -is much to be preferred to a mere chronological outline of the events or productions of his career. In Chapter VIII. the points for a short model essay on a biographical subject will be found.

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(c) EXPOSITION.

To make an exposition of a subject is to set forth in brief lucid form its meaning or explanation. You have to employ exposition in treating (1) moral or reflective themes such as Honesty," or "The paths of glory lead but to the grave," and (2) in describing what a Steam-engine" or "Electricity" is. Examples of each class of these subjects, and some practical hints on the manner of treating them, are given in Chapter VIII. In general, it may be said here, that the student

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should make sure at the outset that he understands the point of the subject in what are called moral or reflective essays. Thus if he finds such a quotation as :

"How small of all that human hearts endure

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That part which laws or kings can cause or cure he should at once set about putting the exact meaning of the couplet into prose in some such way as this: "Human happiness is not increased or diminished by the action of laws or kings. It depends rather on the right ordering of a man's life according to the dictates of conscience and the teachings of religion." The essay should be written on this prose paraphrase by illustrating it in various ways and with appropriate examples. As headings for such an essay the following points may be suggested, supposing the student affirms the truth of the couplet:

Is the couplet true? Yes: because man's happiness is not to be found in those things which kings and laws have power over. Kings and human laws are concerned with this world and its interests. True happiness lies elsewhere. Alexander the Great and Napoleon were kings, and could make their own laws, yet they were not truly happy. The Christian martyrs, torn to pieces by wild beasts in the arena, were the victims of cruel kings and unjust laws; yet true happiness was theirs. Virtue, which brings man happiness, has flourished under the most iniquitous tyrannies; while vice, the destroyer of man's felicity, is to be found in countries whose government and laws leave little to be desired. Further, as Goldsmith points out, happiness is found in every land and under the most diverse constitutions-a proof that no set form of government is essential to its existence. But we must restrict the term "laws" in the couplet to human positive laws-the laws which kings make. Natural law, and, still more, Divine law, have much indeed to do with the making or marring of man's happiness. The observance of these secures the perfection of his nature, in which his true happiness consists. These laws, however, were obviously not in the contemplation of the poet; and, consequently, the

truth of his lines, is, as we have shown, endorsed at once by reason and experience.

The student should, then, always make certain that he understands exactly the subject of the essay before entering on a discussion of it. Five or ten minutes

spent in the effort to do this will not be misspent.

In regard to subjects like "War," "Electricity," "The Steam Engine," it is well also to begin with a definition, or at least a description. Take, for example, the third of the essays suggested. The student, likely enough, may not be familiar with the detailed construction of a steam-engine, and may, therefore, be at a loss what to say on such a theme. But, if he adopts the method suggested in an earlier chapter of this book, the jotting down in a kind of short-hand of the ideas that come to him, he will find, as a rule, that he can, if not throw very much light on the construction of a locomotive, at least write a readable essay for which the title "The Steam Engine" will not be an inappropriate heading. A few suggestive jottings are here set down to illustrate what is meant:

"Steam-engine-Motive power-Expansion of steam -Anecdote of boiling kettle raising the lid-Great discoveries often made by chance-Watts-George Stephenson-Early panic lest the steam engine should go at twelve miles an hour-How ridiculous it seems now when sixty miles an hour is not uncommon—The old stage-coach was a very leisurely mode of conveyancePerhaps it had its advantages-Modern and old-world travelling contrasted-Is the day coming when, thanks to electricity, we shall think even the steam engine slow?"

Every one will have his own associations, but the above specimen will serve to illustrate the truth that something may be made out of what seems to the student, at first sight, an unpromising subject.

(d) ARGUMENTATION.

To defend or criticise a proposition by stating succinctly the arguments for and against it is what is

meant, broadly speaking, by argumentation. Most of the rules dealing with this method of composition are logical and not rhetorical. They are thus outside the scope of this elementary treatise. Moreover, it is seldom that a subject requiring great logical acumen and power of marshalling arguments has to be dealt with by young students. At the same time such questions as, "Was Byron or Wordsworth the greater poet?" "Is Electricity destined to supplant steam as a motive power?" and so forth, require some skill in handling the arguments pro and con. In this style of composition the reasons for each statement should be clearly and concisely stated on the one side and the other; and the conclusion should consist of a balancing of the arguments on both sides and a verdict of a definite kind, if a conclusion is come to. In other respects the rules already given for other styles of writing are sufficient.

(e) LETTER-WRITING.

In writing letters, the rules for the correct framing of sentences must be observed as faithfully as in other compositions. More freedom and familiarity is permitted, especially where the writer is addressing an intimate friend. But, even in this case, slang expressions and other kinds of vulgarity are to be avoided. It may be laid down as a rule that, in letters, we should address those to whom we write in the language we should use if we were speaking to them. Stilted, pedantic, laboured sentences are specially out of place in letters. According to the advice of Goldsmith, "be easy and free, without being free and easy".

No exercise in composition is more useful than letterwriting, as a means to acquire simplicity and directness of style. Nor is any literary exercise of greater practical utility. It will not happen to everyone to write a book or to contribute to a newspaper, but everyone will have frequent occasion to write letters.

Be careful to observe the established forms in beginning and ending letters. The address of the writer and the date of writing should be legibly written at the top

of the first page. A business letter should begin Sir, Dear Sir, or Gentlemen, or Dear Sirs, as the case may require. Letters between friends will be less formal. The correspondent may be addressed by his surname or Christian name, with Dear or My Dear prefixed, according to the degree of familiarity. The letter may conclude with: Yours truly, Yours very truly, Yours faithfully, Yours sincerely, etc. Business or official letters require a more formal ending, and this must never be omitted.

The first thing to think about in correspondence is what you have to tell; the second thing is how you can tell it in the most acceptable manner.

There are two methods of description-one in bare outlines; the other in such graphic touches as impart life and vigour to the statement.

Much of the courtesy of life depends upon the power of using the pen with grace and appropriateness, to convey one's own bodily self, as it were, to one's correspondent and thus to render one's letters welcome to one's friends. The best letters are generally those which have been written with the greatest ease; but ease and simplicity must not be understood as permitting carelessness.

In writing to the most intimate friend, a certain amount of attention both to the style and the subject is necessary and becoming. A slovenly and negligent manner of writing shows a want of respect. An imprudent expression in conversation may be forgiven and pass away; but we should remember when we take the pen in hand that what is written remains.

Be careful, even in the familiar style, how you employ puns and other jests. They are very dangerous weapons even in the most skilful hands. "Sacrifice

your joke rather than risk the loss of your friend."

Commercial Letters should be as clear and concise as possible, brevity and neatness being the two principal requisites. Write just as much as is necessary, but write no more. Avoid all ambiguity, as it may cause great loss of time if not a more serious loss.

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