any"; and "Of John, James and William, the latter alone is clever," should of course read the "the last" or "the last named". Adjectives without Comparative Forms.-Do not compare adjectives like perfect, unique, square, which, from their meaning, do not admit of degrees of the quality expressed. Such expressions as "very accurate," "much rounder," "honester than his friend," though frequently met with, are not correct, unless where the adjectives are not used in a strictly literal sense. Expressions like "more preferable," "more superior," "most supreme," are correct, because they are tautologous, involving a double comparison. So far as modern use is concerned, it is no justification than Shakespeare frequently employs double comparatives and superlatives. The adverb very is not to be joined with a participle. Thus "very pleased" is not so correct as "much pleased"; and still further removed from good usage is very obliged," "very disappointed". 66 Verbs. Do not, as is too often done, confuse the Past Tense and Past Participle of verbs. Such sentences as "The children have forgot their books"; "The labourer done his work early"; "The pony was stole from the field"; Who has rang the bell?' "I done all my lessons," are examples of errors only too common. place the italicized words in the above by, respectively, forgotten," "did," "stolen," "rung," "did". 66 66 Re Care should be taken to connect the participle clearly and correctly with the term it qualifies. Thus: "Speaking to an old gardener about his flowers, he told me," etc., is incorrect, because the real subject of the participle, namely "I," is crowded out by another word. The sentence ought to run: Speaking to an old gardener about his flowers, I was told by him,” etc. Again: "Having entered the field, a bull rushed at us," is incorrect, because the participle does not belong to "bull". It should read: "Having entered the field, we were attacked by a bull". Shall and Will.-The correct use of shall and will is 66 66 not easily stated in a brief space. The student will do well to remember that the original meaning of shall is obligation, necessity" (cf. German, sollen), and of will, desire, wish". It must also be recollected that shall is only a tense-auxiliary, that is, a sign of the future, in the first person. The following well-known lines express with sufficient clearness the distinctive uses of shall and will: In the first person simply shall foretells, In will a threat, or else a promise dwells: Shall in the second or the third contains a threat: Will simply then foretells a future feat. A few illustrative examples are appended: I shall be late 1. 2. 3. 4. We shall be satisfied I will ride We will go Simple futurity expressed. Purpose or intention as serted. Ye shall know the truth) Threat or obligation or It will rain to-morrow Simple futurity expressed. In regard to the use of will and shall in questions, it is to be noted that "Will I go?" is improper, on account of the absurdity of asking what one's own intention is. The same objection, of course, holds in the case of the first person plural, "Will we go?" "Shall I go?" and "Shall we go?" are the correct forms. Sequence of Tenses. In the important matter of the Sequence of Tenses, mistakes are frequently made. The main principles which regulate the tense-relations of verbs may be briefly stated: 1. A principal verb in the present tense should be followed by a present or future tense verb. 2. A verb in the past tense should be followed by another past tense verb. Thus: "If you are good, you will be happy." "As we ascended the mountain, the valley spread out at our feet." The principal tenses should be determined by the exact time of the action. For example, we should not write: "Mr. A. will be happy to accept the Lord Mayor's invitation," but "is happy," because the acceptance is made here and now. Universal truths, which in their nature are independent of time, are expressed only in the present tense, no matter in what tense facts associated with them may be. Thus, we say properly: "Kepler discovered that the planets move in elliptical orbits," not "moved"; or, "It has always been a question with me whether fiction exerts so great an influence over mankind as poetry," not "exerted". Historical Present.-What is called the Historical Present lends considerable vividness to a narrative. It consists in the use of the present tense in describing events long since passed. For example: "Cæsar steals a march on the enemy during the night, and at daybreak is more than twenty miles from their camp". Infinitive Tenses.-The use of the infinitive after a principal verb is a matter of some importance. It should be in the present, without regard to the tense of the principal verb, when it expresses an action either future or contemporary at the time indicated by the principal verb. Thus: "We had hoped to have gained the open country," should be "to gain". "I intended to have gone" is wrong, because it makes the going precede the intention. The Subjunctive Mood is now omitted from many English grammars as a needless and out-of-date refinement. Yet, when properly employed, it conveys a subtle distinction, and is used by the best authors. Take the two following sentences, in the first of which we have a subjunctive in each clause, and in the second two indicatives, and notice the different force of the moods in each : (a) "If he had done it, it had been better." (b) “If he had loved her before, he now adored her," The student will be well advised in using the subjunctive whenever there is any element of doubt or uncertainty as to a condition being fulfilled. 66 Adverbs should not be replaced by adjectives, as in the sentences: He writes neat." "He walks quick." Prepositions. Many blunders are made in the use of Prepositions with other words. Thus, we should say, "different from," not "different to"; "sympathy with,' not "sympathy for"; "angry with," not "angry at "frightened at," not "frightened of"; "to die of want,' not "to die for want"; and so on. There are many other grammatical solecisms which the novice is apt to fall into; but space does not allow of any fuller treatment of the subject here. As has already been said, this chapter is in no way meant as a substitute for the grammar lesson, and, consequently, the student cannot hope to find it exhaustive. What has been said, however, may direct his attention to the kinds of errors which are most common, and thereby sharpen his perception of other flaws in his compositions. In conclusion, it may be said that better and more profitable than the study of any set of rules for the avoidance of errors such as have been pointed out, is the careful and critical reading of the best authors. As listening to correct speakers unconsciously purifies our own language, so we glean from the perusal of classical works a feeling for, and appreciation of, good style. CHAPTER II. WORDS. ONE of the most important cares of the student who aims at acquiring a style at once clear, vigorous and picturesque, should be to cultivate a habit of observing words, of noting shades of meaning in words apparently synonymous, and of enriching his vocabulary by an attentive study of the best authors. Words are the symbols of thought. By them we communicate, whether in speech or writing, with our fellow beings. We must therefore employ them so that they shall accurately and vividly suggest the ideas we attach to them. We must economise our readers' or hearers' attention by so presenting ideas that they can be understood with the least possible mental effort. So important is this consideration that Mr. Herbert Spencer, in a valuable essay on "The Philosophy of Style," reduces all the maxims and laws of good writing to this one principle of making the least possible demand on the reader's attention. "A reader or listener," writes Mr. Spencer, “has at each moment but a limited amount of mental power available. To recognise and interpret the symbols presented to him requires part of this power; to arrange and combine the images suggested requires a further part; and only that part which remains can be used for realising the thought conveyed. Hence the more time and attention it takes to receive and understand each sentence, the less time and attention can be given to the contained idea; and the less vividly will that idea be conceived." It is for this reason that certain significant gestures convey an idea more vividly, because more directly, than |