MOLTKE

MONACO

Moltke (mōlt'-keh), HELMUTH, COUNT VON, a German field-marshal, was born Oct. 26, 1800, in MecklenburgSchwerin. His father being a Danish officer, he was sent to a military school in Copenhagen, and entered the Danish army as a lieutenant, but left it for the Prussian service. He spent a great deal of time in the study of military tactics and foreign languages, and was appointed on the staff of Prince Frederick William. Traveling in Turkey on a leave of absence, the sultan retained him as military adviser, and gave him the work of remodeling the Turkish army. He was chief of the general staff of the army in Berlin from 1858 to 1888, and reorganized the Prussian army. He also made plans for coast defenses and the creation of a navy. His great powers as a military leader were shown in the war with Denmark in 1863, with Austria in 1866 and in France in 1870. He was called "the Silent," from his great modesty and reserve. He wrote Letters from Turkey, The Campaign in Turkey, The Italian Campaign of 1859, and Letters from Russia, while the History of the German and French War, by the general staff, was written under his direction and much of it by him. His ninetieth birthday was celebrated with much honor by the emperor and the German people. He died April 24, 1891. See Life by Müller, translated by Pinkerton. Moluccas, called also SPICE IsLANDS, a division of the Malay archipelago. It includes most of the islands between Celebes and New Guinea, east and west, and between Timor and the Philippines, north and south. It is divided into the Northern Moluccas and the Southern Moluccas. The northern group runs from north to south, is surrounded by deep water, includes ten or a dozen large islands with smaller ones, and has a population of about 60,000. The largest island is Jilolo, while the smaller islands of Tidor and Ternate have been the most important. They were occupied by civilized tribes of Malays, who ruled the ruder tribes on the surrounding islands, and were later the seats of the powerful Mohammedan sultans; and now as the seat of the Dutch government or residency, Ternate has most of the trade of the Northern Moluccas, exporting spices, tortoise shell, beeswax and birds of

separated from the northern group by a very deep ocean chasm, and are Connected by a shallow ocean bed. There are two large islands, three or four smaller ones and several clusters of small ones, covering about 16,500 square miles, and having a population of 350,000. The town of Amboyna, the capital of the Dutch possessions in the Moluccas, carries on a large trade in cloves, 500,000 pounds being raised in some seasons in the clove gardens of the government. Banda, the third Dutch residency, is the home of the nutmeg, which grows on the slopes of the volcanic islands. Besides nutmeg and mace, it also exports sago and cocoanuts. The region of the Moluccas is volcanic, and there are still several active volcanoes, from one of which Api, in Banda, there was a terrible eruption in 1825. The climate is tempered by the ocean breezes, and by the height of the islands, some of them rising 8,000 or 10,000 feet above the sea. Spices grow abundantly, but were rooted out by the Dutch government from all the islands except the Banda group and Amboyna, to give them a monopoly of the trade. The animals are curious, such as the flying opossum, the bird of paradise, the mound-building bird, the long-armed beetle, most gorgeous butterflies and beautiful sea anemones, shells and corals.

Mommsen, THEODOR, the historian, was born in Sleswick, Nov. 13, 1817. He spent three years traveling in France and Italy, studying Roman inscriptions, edited a newspaper in Sleswick, and held a professor's chair in Leipsic, that of Roman law at Zurich, and the same professorship at Breslau and that of ancient history at Berlin. His large library was burned in 1880, and a new one was presented him by his English students. He edited with others several historical works, and wrote a number on Roman law, Roman coins and kindred subjects, making him famous as perhaps the greatest scholar of the age. His great work, his Roman History, in three volumes, has passed through five editions, and been translated into French and English.

Monaco (mo-na'-ko), a small country on the Mediterranean, nine miles from Nice. It covers eight square miles, and consists of a rocky promontory, on which the city of Monaco is built, and a

MONASTIR

small strip of coast. It has belonged to the Grimaldi family for over 900 years. They have several times put their country under French protection, and in 1859 the whole region belonged for a short time to Victor Emmanuel. The owner at another time sold a part of his dominions, including Mentone, to Napoleon III. for $200,000. His capital is now under French protection. The climate is mild, and palms, aloes and other southern plants are abundant. Population, 13,304.

Monastir, also called BITOLIA, the second city in Turkish Macedonia, is situated in a broad mountain_valley, 90 miles northwest of Salonica. It man

camels and goats. They are mostly Buddhists in religion, and fond of making long pilgrimages. There are about 2,000,000 of them under Chinese rule. The Western Mongols have mingled with their Turkish neighbors so that it is difficult to number them. They are found in Russia, Astrakhan, Turkestan, Bokhara, Samarcand and the Crimea. The history of the Mongols begins with Genghis Khan, born about 1160, who united the different tribes into one nation and led them out to conquest. They overran Tartary, a large part of China, Persia, Russia and Afghanistan. Under his sons and their successors, other portions of China were conquered,

ufactures carpets and silver filagree, and trades in corn and other farm products. The Turks have made it the head of an army corps, as it is an important military point. Its ancient Greek name was Pelagonia. The Albanian beys were massacred here in 1833. Population, 45,000.

Mongols, an Asiatic race, constituting one of the large divisions of mankind, including the Mongols proper, known as East Mongols and West Mongols and Bariats, and the Tartars, who form a distinct branch. The Kalmucks belong to the West Mongols. Mongolia, inhabited by the East Mongols, is a part of the Chinese empire lying south of Siberia, and shut in by mountain ranges. The people lead a wandering life, dwelling in tents, and having flocks of sheep and herds of horses, cattle,

the caliphs of Bagdad overthrown and Europe invaded as far as the Danube, making the Mongol empire at its height, the greatest the world has known. Kubla Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, established the first Mongol dynasty in China, which was finally overthrown by the Chinese in the 14th century. The Mongol kingdom, divided in the 13th century, was united again in the 14th century under Tamerlane, but after his death lost its power, until in the 17th century it became a part of the Chinese empire. The Mongolian language belongs to what is called the Turanian family. There is very little literature, what they possess being mostly translations from Chinese religious works; the original works being mainly accounts of the deeds of Genghis Khan and Tamerlane. See History of the

Mongols, by Howorth; Among the Mongols, by Gilmour.

Mongoose. See ICHNEUMON. Monitor, the name given to a kind of warship first used in the civil war. It was a wooden ship covered with plates of iron, carrying in the center a revolving tower or turret, in which the guns were placed. The first one used was made by Captain Ericsson, in 100 days, and used in the naval battle with the confederate ship Virginia. The success of the Monitor produced great excitement in Europe and made a revolution in the construction of naval vessels. England immediately tried the plan, changing a wooden vessel into an ironclad monitor, which was considered the most formidable ship in the navy. Improvements were made from time to time, until the greater part of naval vessels are now made upon this principle and known as monitors or "ironclads." See NAVY.

Monk, GEORGE, DUKE OF ALBEMARLE, was born in Devonshire, England, Dec. 8, 1608. His first services in the army, at Cadiz, Rochelle, nine years in Holland, and in wars against the Scotch and the Irish, ended in 1644, when he was taken prisoner by Fairfax and kept in the Tower two years. He was freed by agreeing to the covenant. He was major-general at Ulster, and Cromwell left him to finish the conquest of Scotland, and in 1654 he was made governor of the country, a position he filled well for five years. At the death of Cromwell, while everything was in confusion, he marched to London with 6,000 men, and entered the city without opposition in February, 1660. Every party wanted him, and felt that the fate of the country lay with "Old George." His own wish was to bring back the Stuarts, and he found the nation with him. He worked slowly and with cunning; freed the parliament from the power of the army, admitted members that had been excluded, and brought about the election of a new parliament, and on May 23, 1660, he welcomed Charles II. at Dover. He was rewarded with high offices and made duke of Albemarle, but soon retired from political life. As governor of London, at the time of the plague, he stayed at his post and helped bravely. He died Jan. 3, 1670. "A man capable of great things, but possessing no greatness of soul," is the judgment of Guizot. See Life by Guizot, and also the one by Corbett.

MONMOUTH

Monkey, a class of animals belonging to the same family as the ape. There are two varieties, the old world monkeys and the new world monkeys. These two divisions are distinct and are limited to their own regions. Even the fossil remains of monkeys are entirely different in the two regions. The old world monkeys have narrow faces, and their tails, when they have any, are not used for clinging. Both classes live in tropical regions, being found in South America, Asia and Africa, only one variety existing in Europe, the Barbary ape of Gibraltar. There are ten varieties of monkeys in North America, and these are not found north of Mexico. The American monkeys all live in trees and their home is the forests of the Amazon. The marmoset is a variety of American monkey, much smaller than

HAND AND FOOT OF MONKEY.

the common kind, with long, soft fur, and silky tufts at the side of their heads. They are very affectionate, easily tamed, and are often used for pets. Another variety is called the howler, from the terrible noise they make at night. They are found in the forests of South America, and have only rarely been brought north. All monkeys use the great toe as a thumb, and so are called quadrumana, or four-handed.

Monmouth, BATTLE OF, an engagement between the English forces, under Clinton, and the American forces under Washington, at Freehold, Monmouth county, New Jersey. It was Washington's first battle after the dreary winter at Valley Forge. General Lee was in charge of the advance, which was thrown into confusion and began a retreat. Washington hurried to the front, reproving Lee sharply, and rallied the fugitives. Tradition says that this was

MONMOUTH

the only time that Washington was known to swear. The Americans held their ground, and Clinton retreated in the night. Lee was deprived of his command for a year by court-martial.

Monmouth, JAMES, DUKE OF, was born at Rotterdam, Holland, April 9, 1649. He was thought to be a son of Charles II., and as such was made duke of Monmouth, and wedded to a rich heiress. In spite of his profligacy, he became the idol of the people, thanks to his beauty and winning manners, his royal tours through the country and his humanity towards the Covenanters at Bothwell Bridge, 1679. His share in what is known as the Rye House Plot, 1683, was discovered, and he fled to Holland. After the death of Charles, he returned to England, with eightytwo followers, landing in June 11, 1685. He claimed the throne, attacked the king as a murderer and Catholic, and had himself proclaimed as James II. Gathering a force of about 3,000 men, mostly peasants and miners, he risked a battle with the king's troops at Sedge Moor. He was defeated, losing nearly half his army, and captured when fleeing disguised as a shepherd. His tears and pleadings, and even the promise to change his religion, were of no avail with the king, and he was beheaded July 15, 1685, See Life by Roberts.

Monongahela (mo-non'-ga-he'-la), a river, one of the sources of the Ohio, rises in Virginia, flowing north into Pennsylvania, where it unites with the Allegheny at Pittsburg and forms the Ohio. It is 150 miles long and is navigable for about 80 miles for large boats. The Cheat river and the Youghiogheny are the chief branches.

Monopoly, a term used to indicate the sole right to sell or trade in any article, given to a single person or to a group of persons. In early times this right was often granted by governernment, as in the time of Queen Elizabeth, salt and coal were articles whose sale was thus limited; and one of the greatest monopolies the world has ever known, the East India company, reIceived its charter at that time. These government monopolies were opposed by the English people and finally put an end to. Monopolies under their modern form of trusts, syndicates or unions, are the same in principle, an effort to do away with competition and give to one set or class of persons the sole right of selling or trading in an

MONROE

article. These combinations are effected by the use of capital, which is employed to drive out of business all small dealers. The Standard Oil company and the Reading coal "combine are wellknown instances of great American monopolies.

Monroe, JAMES, the fifth president of the United States, was born in Westmoreland county, Virginia, April 28, 1758. He entered William and Mary College, but soon left to join the army under Washington. He was in several battles, wounded at Trenton and became lieutenant-colonel and military commissioner. In 1782, after studying law with Jefferson, he became a member of the Virginia assembly and was sent the next year to congress. Here his services were influential in bringing about the conventions at Annapolis and Philadelphia, where the

to

constitution of the United States was framed, which, however, he opposed in the Virginia convention, siding with Patrick Henry and other States' Rights men. He was in the United States senate from 1790 to 1794 and minister to France from 1794 to 1796, when he was recalled because of his too open expressions of sympathy with the revolution. His former opposition Washington and this treatment induced him to publish an attack on the government, which made him the favorite of the democratic party. He was governor of Virginia three years and then was sent by Jefferson to France, where with Robert Morris he effected the Louisiana purchase in 1803. His efforts for a cession of Florida by Spain were unsuccessful, and the treaty with England obtained by him failed to provide against the seizing of American sailors. In 1811 he was again governor of Virginia, and secretary of state under

Madison until 1817. In 1816 he was elected president of the United States, and reelected in 1820. The most popular measures of his administration were the obtaining of Florida from Spain (1819), the settling of the slavery question by the Missouri compromise, the recognition of the independence of the Spanish American republics and the announcement of what is known as the Monroe doctrine. In a message to congress approving the bill which recognized the South American republics, Monroe declared that "the American continents are not to be considered as subjects for colonization by any European power." This declaration, known as the "Monroe doctrine," has ever since held a place as well in the diplomacy as in the political creed of the nation. After his retirement to his home in Virginia he became involved in debt, but found a home with his son-in-law in New York, where he died July 4, 1831. See Life by Gilman in "American Statesmen" series.

Monsoon, a term meaning a "set time or season," formerly used to indicate the winds prevailing in the Indian Ocean, blowing from the southwest from April to October, and from the northeast from October to April. The word is used now of all winds that are regular, returning with the seasons. The prevailing winds of North America are largely of this class, and there are monsoons in Australia, on the coasts of Brazil, Peru | and North Africa. See WINDS.

Montagu (mon'-ta-gu), LADY MARY WORTLEY, was born about 1690 in Nottinghamshire, England. When only eight years old her father introduced her to the famous Kit-Cat club, of which she became a member. After her marriage her husband's public position brought her into court society in London, where she was celebrated for her wit and beauty, and numbered among her friends Addison, Pope and other literary men of the time. In 1716 her husband was English ambassador at Constantinople, and during her life there of two years, she wrote the Letters that have made her famous, addressing them to her sister, Pope and other friends. They are descriptions of eastern life and manners. She became convinced of the benefit of inoculation for smallpox while abroad, and introduced it into England, trying it first on her own son. She died Aug. 21, 1762. See Life, in the edition of her works by Wharnecliffe.

Y. C.-53.

ΜΟΝΤΑΝΑ

Montaigne (mon - tain' ), MICHEL EY QUEM DE, the French writer, was born in 1533, in Perigord, France. His father had peculiar ideas of education and put them in practice in his son's case. He was nursed by a poor woman in a village, that he might learn simple habits of living and sympathy with the poor. That his boyhood might be made as happy as possible, he had him wakened every morning by the sound of music. As he must learn Latin, then the necessary foundation of all education, he had him taught it in the easiest way, by conversation, and until he was six years old he understood no other language. His father sent him to school at six, making various arrangements to carry out his plans of education. He studied law, and became a city counselor, holding the office for thirteen years. His first literary work was a translation of a Spanish Natural History. On the death of his brothers he succeeded to the family estate, and here began his famous Essays, which were written simply because he felt the need of occupation. These essays, written apparently without any plan, inspired by the caprice of the moment, touching upon his daily life, his habits and tastes and thoughts, on all kinds of subjects, have held the attention of a large class of readers, of all kinds and sorts, for 300 years. The circle of admirers widens every year, and is almost equal to that composed of the followers of Shakespeare. See Representative Men, by Emerson; Montaigne, by Collins.

Montana, one of the northern states of the Union, is the third in size, coming next to Texas and California, covering 146,080 square miles, being larger than the British islands. The Rocky Mountain region in the western part includes one-fifth of the state, while the eastern part is in dry, rolling plains, needing irrigation to make it productive. The mountainous part rises from 8,000 to 11,000 feet high, with high valleys and passes, but the eastern plains are lower than Colorado or Wyoming, so that the climate is somewhat milder. The dry regions of the east have already been improved by canals and reservoirs, built by private enterprise. The Bad Lands, as they are called, near the Yellowstone river, have a peculiar soft, sticky soil, in which animals sink at every footstep. The Rocky Mountains cross the state for 300 miles, with numerous smaller ranges and fertile valleys. The Mis