1826. At Navarino, Oct. 20, 1827, the Turkish fleet was destroyed, and in 1829 Greece became independent. In 1840 Turkey was admitted into the political system of European states, and since that time her power has been strengthened by the alliance of other nations, as by England, France and Sardinia, in 1854 in the Crimean war against Russia, and by the French and English in the conflicts between the Druses and Maronites at Damascus and in the Lebanon. In 1875 Bosnia and Herzego- | vina revolted against Turkish misrule, and a year later there were uprisings in Bulgaria, followed by horrible massacres of men, women and children by Turkish soldiers. These atrocities aroused all Europe. On account of them, England could not now befriend Turkey, and Russia having secured the neutrality of Austria by giving her permission to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina on certain conditions, declared war against Turkey in 1877. After a bloody contest, Plevna, the Turkish stronghold, fell before her, and the Russo-Turkish war was ended by the peace of 1878. This changed the map of European Turkey greatly. Roumania, Montenegro, Servia and Bulgaria, north of the Balkans, becoming independent; South Bulgaria, called East Roumelia, was left to Turkey, but in 1885 it was united to North Bulgaria, while Bosnia and Herzegovina came under Austrian_control. See History of the Ottoman Turks, by Creasy, and Modern Turkey, by Farley.

Turks, a race of people belonging to the Turanian family, who appeared first in Asia among the Tartar tribes. In the 6th century, around Turkestan grew up a Turkish empire, which was overthrown by another Turkish tribe, the Uigurs, who were the first of the Turks to possess a written language. They were driven westward by the Chinese, with whom they had been contending for centuries, and their kingdom in central Asia was entirely overthrown by Genghis Khan. But they had already established themselves in the west of Asia, where under the Seljuks, another tribe of Turks, their possessions reached from Persia to India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. The Ottoman empire was founded in the 14th century by Othman, and the present inhabitants of Turkey are called Osmanli or Ottoman Turks. The Turkomans ("like the Turks") are the descendants of the

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old Seljuks, and are found in Turkestan. The Ottoman Turks, found in the Turkish empire, are more like Europeans than the other Turkish tribes, which have the broad face and high cheek bones and yellow skin of the Mongolians. The different tribes speak nearly the same language, and are usually Mohammedans, though the Turks on the borders of China are Buddhists, and those of Siberia Greek Christians. See SELJUKS and TURANIANS.

Turk's Island, or Turques, a group of barren islands belonging to the Bahama Archipelago, about 90 miles north of Hayti. The population of about 2,500 is increased during the salt season, when laborers come from the Bermudas to work at salt raking. Salt is the great export of the island.

Turmeric, a name given to the roots of a plant of the ginger family. The roots, or root stocks are yellow, marked with wrinkles, and a darker yellow, or reddish-brown inside, and when chewed make a yellow stain; they smell like ginger, and have a somewhat similar taste. They are used somewhat in dyeing, in coloring varnishes, and in curry-powder and pickles.

Turner, JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM, an English painter, was born in London in 1775. His first art work was coloring prints for an engraver. He was indebted to a Dr. Monro for encouragement in his early work, by giving him the opportunity to see his fine collection of water-colors and buying his sketches. He studied at the Royal Academy, where he exhibited his pictures, and in 1802 was elected a member, being already recognized as the first landscape painter of his time. His style was afterwards changed by travels in Europe, and in the last few years of his life, as some physicians believe, by a change in his eyes, which cast the blue mist so characteristic of his later works. He contributed 259 pictures to the Royal Academy, and over 19,000 drawings and sketches were mounted and arranged by Ruskin. His illustrations of the poems of Rogers, Byron, Scott, etc., are well known. Among his paintings are, Dutch Boats in a Gale; Falls of the Clyde; Sun Rising Through a Mist; Building of Carthage; Bay of Baix, and Childe Harold, or Modern Italy. His most famous drawings are, Rivers of France; Rivers of England, and Scenery of the Southern Coast, etc. They were carefully prepared by him

for engraving, and all his pictures were engraved during his lifetime. Ruskin, in his Modern Painters, did much to raise Turner to the high position he holds among English painters. He was very eccentric, traveling alone, and hiding himself for months under an assumed name, with a strong passion for money. He died Dec. 19, 1851, at Chelsea, leaving to the nation his collection of pictures, which have been placed in the National gallery. His large fortune was left to found a home for needy artists, but some defect in the will prevented the carrying out of his wishes. He was buried beside Sir Joshua Reynolds in St. Paul's. See Life by Thornbury, and Life by Hamerton; Modern Painters, by Ruskin.

Turner, SHARON, an English historian, was born in London, Sept. 24, 1768. He was an attorney by profession, but continued his literary studies, and published a History of the Anglo-Saxons in three volumes. This work was the result of years of patient collection of materials and research, and has given its author a permanent place in English literature. His other works are a History of England from the Earliest Period to the Death of Elizabeth, and a Sacred History of the World as Displayed in the Creation. He died Feb. 13, 1847. Turpentine, a gum or resin which is found in various species of pine, and some other trees. American or common turpentine is obtained from the longleaved pine, and is brought in the largest quantities from North Carolina. Venice turpentine, which is considered the best kind, is from the larch tree. The German turpentine comes from the Scotch fir, Strasburg turpentine from the silver fir and Canada turpentine from the balsam or balm of Gilead fir. Turpentine is obtained by making a cut in the tree and catching the sap, which looks much like honey. The oil of turpentine is made from this sap by distilling, and the hard part that is left is the common yellow resin, used in making soap, etc. Turpentine hardens in the air, burns easily, and can be dissolved by alcohol or ether. The oil of turpentine is used in medicine, and in making varnishes and paints. The name comes from the terebinth tree from which the Greeks obtained it.

Turquoise (tur-koiz), one of the precious stones, is a mineral, found mostly in Persia. It is hard and of a greenish-blue color, the finest blue being the most valuable. It is used in the

TUSCANY

east for ornamenting swords and charms and girdles, and is thought to protect its owner against disease. The finest specimens of turquoise are supposed to belong to the shah of Persia, as only the inferior varieties are allowed to be sent out of the kingdom.

Turtle. See TORTOISE.

Turtledove, the name of a class of pigeons, smaller than the common variety, found in Europe, India and Africa. They are known for their soft and pleasant cooing. The Carolina turtledove, found all over North America, is about a foot long, with a long tail, and wedge-shaped wings, and colored blue above, with markings of olivebrown, turning to red and purple on the head and neck, the play of colors resembling the common pigeon. They fly swiftly, with a peculiar whistling noise, 200 or 300 in a flock. In Europe they are seen in flocks of about twenty in the fields. The common variety is smaller than the American bird, of gray and brown tints and the tail feathers tipped with white. The collared turtledove is the most common species in Palestine and northern Africa, and is probably the turtledove mentioned in Scripture. It is gray and brown with red tints.

Tuscaloosa, a city of Alabama, is on the Black Warrior river, 90 miles northwest of Montgomery. The insane asylum,with fine buildings and grounds, a college for women and the state university are situated here. The university endowment includes 500 acres and $300,000 from lands granted by congress. The buildings were burned in 1865 by the federal troops, but there are now four new buildings, with Clark Hall, containing the library. Tuscaloosa is in the cotton-planting and also the mineral region of Alabama, which makes it the center of a large trade. It has flour mills, cotton, shoe and leather factories. The name of the town and river is from the Indian chief Tuscaloosa (“Black Warrior"), who fought with De Soto. Population, 5,486.

Tuscany, a division of central Italy, formerly a grand duchy. It lies south and west of the Apennines, on the Mediterranean, covering about 9,289 square miles. The northern part is mountainous, and the remainder of the state is hilly and undulating, except the coasts, which are flat and marshy. The principal rivers are the Arno, Cecina and Ambrone, which flow into the Mediterranean. The main crops are

corn, wheat, rye and barley cattle, | sheep and mules are raised in great numbers; olive oil, wine, woolen, silk and straw goods are manufactured. Florence is the chief city and Leghorn the principal seaport.

Tuscany was a part of ancient Etruria (which see). With the fall of the Roman empire, it went to the Lombards, and was governed by counts, under Charlemagne and other German emperors, until the latter part of the 12th century. Florence, Pisa, Sienna and Lucca were the principal of the little states into which Tuscany was divided during the struggles of the next centuries. Modern Tuscany was formed in 1569, when Cosimo de Medici became grand duke of Tuscany. Napoleon formed the kingdom of Etruria in 1801, and in 1808 made his sister, Elisa, grand duchess of Tuscany. In 1860 it became a part of the kingdom of Italy. Population, 2,142,525. See Tuscany in 1849 and 1859, by Mrs. Trollope.

Tuscaroras, a tribe of American Indians, one of the six nations of the Iroquois family, found in North Carolina at its settlement. After difficulties with the whites, in which many of the Indians were killed or taken prisoners, a part of the tribe fled to New York, where they settled on Lake Oneida, and still have a reservation in that state. In 1829 North Carolina bought the lands still held in that state by the Tuscaroras. The name means a "shirt

wearer."

Tweed, the most famous river in Scotland, rises in Peebleshire, flows for about 20 miles northeast, and then in an easterly direction, emptying into the North sea at Berwick, in England. It is 95 miles long, but navigable only a few miles from its mouth. It owes its fame to its beautiful scenery, and to the historical associations. Crossing the heart of the "Borders" between England and Scotland, it has been the scene of many a deadly struggle, and its name is frequent in ballad and story. Tweed, WILLIAM MARCY, an American politician, was born in New York, April 3, 1823. He held the different offices of alderman, congressman, supervisor of the city of New York, school and street commissioner, and state senator. While commissioner of public works, in 1870, he and his followers, constituting the famous "Tweed Ring," used large amounts of public funds for their own purposes. After several trials Tweed was convicted of fraud and sen

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tenced to twelve years' imprisonment and the payment of $12,550 as a fine. He was confined at Blackwell's Island, but his imprisonment was declared illegal by the court of appeals. Several other suits had been brought against him, and he was again imprisoned, for want of the $3,000,000 of bail required. He escaped to Spain, but was recaptured, and died in jail in New York City, April 12, 1878.

Twickenham, a village in Middlesex, England, on the Thames river opposite Richmond. It is known as the residence of Pope, whose grotto is still to be seen and whose monument is in the parish church. Strawberry Hill, famous as the home of Walpole, is near by and the Orleans House, used by Louis Philippe while in England and still belonging to his family, is in the town.

Twilight is the faint light before sunrise and after sunset, which is produced by the reflection by the atmos phere of the sun's rays when it is still below the horizon.. If we had no atmos phere we should have no light until the exact moment when the sun would rise, and no light after the sun had set. The sun must be 18° below the horizon at any place before the twilight will cease, so in the polar region where the sun is nearer the horizon than 18° there will be twilight all night, or rather there will be no night. The fine colors of the clouds during twilight is caused by the reflection of the sun's rays. In mountain regions where the condition of the air changes slowly, and on the sea or inland lakes, owing to the moisture of the air, the colors are particularly beauti ful. The different tints are produced by the separation of the rays of which the white light of the sun is composed, by passing through the dense lower atmosphere, just as they can be separated by passing through a glass wedge or prism. The after-glow, or second twilight, is thought by Sir John Herschel to be due to a second reflection of the sun's light in the atmosphere.

Tyler, JOHN, tenth president of the United States, was born in Charles City county, in Virginia, March 29, 1790. He graduated at William and Mary College in 1807, studied law and had a large practice soon after he was admitted to the bar. He was elected to the state legislature five times, and three times to congress. He sympa thized with the state's rights party, and opposed the United States bank, pro