river. The old part of the town looks like a Mexican city, with plazas, narrow streets and adobe houses, but the newer parts are American. The climate, mild in winter, is very hot in summer, and the yearly rainfall is only seven inches. The church of St. Xavier, built more than a hundred years ago by Catholic missionaries, is near the city, and the university of the territory is at Tucson. The city is supplied with gas and water, and has a large trade with Mexico and in supplying the Indian reservations. Tucson was a Mexican military post, and came into the possession of the United States by the "Gadsden purchase," in 1853. Population, 5,095. Tudor, the name of one of the royal families of England, reigning from 1485-1603. The family came from Owen Tudor, who was at one time a brewer in Anglesey, fought at Agincourt, and so pleased Catharine, widow of Henry V., by his dancing at a court pageant, that she married him privately. The queen took refuge in a convent and Tudor was sent to prison, to escape the popular fury when their marriage became known. Tudor escaped and was protected by the young king, Henry VI. The oldest son of this marriage was made earl of Richmond, and married Margaret Beaufort, who was a descendant of John of Gaunt. Their son Henry became Henry VII. of England, and by marrying the daughter of Edward IV. united the houses of York and Lancaster, and ended the war of the roses. There were five Tudor sovéreigns-Henry VII., Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary and Elizabeth. See Early Tudors, by Moberly; History of England (1529-1588), by Froude.

Tuileries (twee'-le-rez), one of the French royal palaces, is in Paris on the Seine river. It was originally outside the city where there were several tile works (tuileries), which gave it its name. Francis I. bought the property as a present for his mother, Catherine de Medici, began a new palace on it in 1566, Henry IV., Louis XIII. and Louis XIV., Napoleon I. and Napoleon III. all adding to it. Louis XIII. was the first French king who lived in it. It was connected with the Louvre by galleries, so that they formed one collection of buildings. When Louis XVI. was residing there, in 1792, it was stormed by the mob and the guards massacred, and in 1793 the national convention held its sittings there. Napoleon I. occupied it during his reign,

TUNIS

and the Bourbons after the restoration, and under Napoleon III. it was greatly improved. The palace and a part of the galleries connecting it with_the Louvre were destroyed by the Commune in 1871. The gardens of the Tuileries, include fifty acres, and form a beautiful park.

Tula, a city in Russia, on the Ups river, 110 miles south of Moscow. It has a large cannon factory and manufactory of arms, founded by Peter the Great, and nearly 800 other factories which supply the Russian army with arms. Cutlery, locks, tea urns and bells are made in large quantities, and the preparation of bristles for market is a large industry. Population, 58,000.

Tulip, a plant belonging to the lily family, of which about thirty species are known, mostly natives of Asia. The bulb produces a stem with from one to three large leaves and a single flower, The flowers are of all colors, and variously marked. Holland is noted for its cultivation of the tulip, and exports bulbs largely. In the latter part of the 17th century there was a mania for tulips, which sold for enormous prices, $6,000 having been paid for one bulb.

Tulip Tree, a large tree of the magnolia family, known for its large, showy flowers, shaped like the tulip. It is an American tree, found from Canada to Florida. It grows from 100 to 140 feet high, being one of the largest na tive trees. The bark is at first lightbrown and smooth, but as the tree grows old it is broken by long, lengthwise cracks. The leaves are about four inches broad and look as though they had been cut off at the end. The flower is greenish-yellow with orange markings. The wood turns yellow when exposed, but is soft and easily bent and is used in curved work, carriage building and making of furniture. It is often called the yellow poplar but does not belong to that family.

Tunis, one of the Barbary states in northern Africa, is on the Mediterranean between Algiers and Tripoli. It is 440 miles long and 160 broad, covering 75,000 square miles. The coast line is irregular, and there is one river, the Mejerdah. Cape Blanco and Cape Bon on its northern coast are the most northern points in Africa. The northwestern part of the country is mountainous, some of the peaks being 4,000 or 5,000 feet high. The country is very fertile, and wheat, barley, corn, oranges, olives, figs, etc., are produced abundantly,

olives being especially cultivated for the oil. The sheep are famous for their wool and the horses and dromedaries are celebrated, while great herds of cattle feed on the plains. There are fine mineral springs, and silver, lead, copper and salt are found. The trade of the country is mainly with the interior of Africa, from which are brought gums, ostrich feathers, gold and ivory for European countries. The people are Arabs with a mixture of Turks, Moors, Jews and Christians. The religion is Mohammedanism. The government, though sending a yearly tribute to Turkey, is independent and a despotism. The ruler is called the bey.

Under the Romans the region of Tunis was about the same as that of ancient Carthage. It was taken by the Vandals in 429, belonged a century after to Greece and in the 7th century to the Mohammedans. It became independent in the 13th century. Charles V. made it tributary to Spain until 1574 when the Turks again took possession. Piracy was very common until 1816. The later rulers have suppressed the slave trade and burdensome taxes, established courts of justice, and provided a city government for the capital. Population, 2,000,000.

Tunis, the capital of the state of Tunis, in Africa, is near the mouth of the river Mejerdah, about three miles from the ruins of Carthage. It has a wall five miles around, and a strong castle. The streets are narrow and dirty, and the houses of one story, with no windows on the outside. The bey's palace and some of the mosques are very fine buildings, and the bazaars are attractive. There is a Moorish college, a Roman Catholic church, a Greek church, an Italian theater, and large barracks. The manufactures are of silk, wool, leather, soap, wax, and olive oil. Population, 132,000.

Tunnel, an underground passage, built for roads, railroads, canals or aqueducts. They were built by hand until very recent times, when machinery has been used. The first machine was built to use in excavating the Hoosac tunnel in Massachusetts, in 1851, but was not successful. Other experiments were tried until machine drills, driven by compressed air, are in general use. The Hoosac tunnel, on the railroad from Boston, Massachusetts, to Troy, New York, is through the Hoosac mountain, a part of the Green mountain range, and is five miles long. It was eighteen

TUPPER

years in building, and cost the state of Massachusetts eighteen millions of dollars. Among other large tunnels in the United States is one at Port Huron, Michigan, under the St. Clair river, and one under the Hudson river connecting New York City with New Jersey, and one connecting New York City with Long Island, in process of construction. The Chicago tunnel built under the lake, to supply the city with water, was begun in 1864, and has been carried out four miles. A similar one under Lake Erie, finished in 1874, supplies water to the city of Cleveland. The Mount Cenis tunnel and the St. Gothard tunnel, through the Alps, are the most celebrated in Europe, that of Mount Cenis being over seven miles long, and the St. Gothard more than nine miles. The first tunnel under the Thames at London was begun in 1807, but was not finished until 1843. Tunnels were in use among the ancients, Herodotus describing one in the island of Samos, cut through a mountain for 4,247 feet. Cæsar found the city of Alexandria almost undermined with aqueducts, each house having its reservoir filled from the Nile. The aqueducts of the Romans were often carried underground for long distances through tunnels, and those also of the Peruvians and Mexicans.

Tunny, a fish of the mackerel family, found in the Atlantic ocean, and especially in the Mediterranean sea. It is a very large fish, from 9 to 20 feet long, and weighing sometimes 1,000 pounds. It is thicker than the mackerel, dark-blue with silvery spots. The European variety is highly esteemed for food, and is caught in nets shaped like a funnel, the fish entering the wide mouth and being driven to the narrow end, where they are killed with lances and harpoons. Near Constantinople it appears in shoals so crowded that they are often taken by hand. The best tunny fisheries are in Spain, Italy and Sardinia. The American tunny, found on the Atlantic coasts from New York to Nova Scotia, is black above and white below, and is used largely for oil, one fish sometimes yielding 20 gallons.

Tupper, MARTIN FARQUHAR, an English author, was born in London, July 17, 1810. He was a graduate of Oxford, and was admitted to the bar. In 1838 he published his Proverbial Philosophy, which was very popular with the people, though ridiculed by the

critics, and has passed through forty editions. His numerous works include Crock of Gold, Hymns for all Nations, in Thirty Languages, Stephen Langton, Three Hundred Sonnets, etc., none of which have at all equaled in popularity his first work. He died in 1889.

Turanians, one of the large divisions of the human race. It includes the Hungarians, Bulgarians, Lapps and Finns, with other tribes in Europe; the Samoyeds living in the northern part of Asia; the Turks or Tartars forming the largest division; the Mongols, divided into east Mongols and Buriats; and the Mantchoos, the principal race of the Tungusian branch, the present ruling people in China. Of these various tribes those living in Europe are the most advanced in languages and customs, and those in northern Asia are the lowest of the race. The name Turanian, usually given to these related tribes, is taken from the Persians, who, calling their own country Iran, named the countries north of it Turan. They are sometimes called Mongolian, Scythian, or Tartaric races. The Turanian languages do not present the same unmistakable family likeness as the Aryan and Semitic groups, and scholars differ in regard to them, some including the Dravidian dialects of southern India, and others considering the Mongol and Mantchoo dialects to be distinct languages. The Finnic branch of languages is superior to the others, having some national literature, such as the legendary and popular songs of the Finns and Hungarians. See Science of Language, by Max Müller. Turbot, a fish of the flatfish family. The left side of the fish is brown, and the right side white, and the eyes are on the left side. It keeps near the bottom of the sea, and feeds on small fish and other sea animals. Its flesh is white and delicate and highly valued for food, large quantities being carried to the London market from the German ocean. The French call the fish sea-pheasant because of its delicate flavor. The American or spotted turbot is also called the New York plaice, and watery-flounder. It is smaller than the common European variety, being more like the brill, a small species of turbot found in the Mediterranean. It is reddish-gray with dark blotches and white spots, and is a very delicate fish for the table.

TURGENIEF

French soldier, was born at Sedan, France, Sept. 11, 1611. He was sent to Holland to study the art of war under his uncle, the celebrated Maurice. He joined the French army, serving in Germany, where he relieved Mentz, besieged by the emperor's army. He then was attached to the Swedish army under Bernard of Weimar, where he captured several towns, and later defeated the Austrians and Spaniards at Casale, and took Turin. After his conquest of Roussillon in 1642, he was made a marshal of France and given chief command on the Rhine, when he defeated the Bavarians at Rottweil, but was himself defeated by their gen eral, Mercy, at Marienthal. With Condé, he avenged this defeat at Nordlingen, where Mercy was slain. Turenne finished the war by conquering the electorate of Treves, and with the help of the Swedes, Bavaria, and a successful campaign in Flanders. In the civil wars in France, the two greatest generals of the period, Condé and Turenne, were on opposite sides, and Turenne with inferior forces was uniformly victorious, finally driving Condé from France. He then conquered much of the Spanish Netherlands. Louis XIV. made him marshal-general of France, and only his Protestantism prevented his being appointed constable. Bossuet's celebrated Exposition of the Christian Doctrine was written at the king's suggestion to effect the conversion of Turenne to Catholicism, and aided by the king's solicitations was successful. In the campaign in Holland in 1672 he compelled the elector of Brandenburg to beg for peace. His last campaign is disfigured by the devastation of the Palatinate, where he burned thirty towns. His desire to retire could not be gratified as he was the only general that could successfully oppose Montecucculi, the great Austrian general, and for nearly half a year their strategy was the admiration of Europe. Having forced his antagonist to a battle at Salzbach, Turenne was viewing the preparations for the attack, when he was killed by a stray ball, July 27, 1675. He was buried by order of the king at St. Denis, the place of the royal sepulchers. His monument was injured during the revolution, but was finally placed beside that of Napoleon in the Hotel des Invalides. See Life by Cockayne.