even the last three had been. He was opposed by North, Sheridan and Burke, who united against him, but his dauntless courage, skill and firmness won him the battle, and on March 25, 1784, parliament was dissolved and Pitt, only 25 years of age, was elected minister. He was one of England's most powerful premiers, and held sway for 20 years. He died Jan. 23, 1806, and was buried beside his father in Westminster Abbey. See biography by Lord Stanhope.

Pittsburgh is situated where the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers unite to form the Ohio, 354 miles from Philadelphia, 444 miles from New York and 468 from Chicago. It is the second city in Pennsylvania, having its business portion along the river banks for some 12 miles, and its beautiful residences on the rising hills, which command charming views. The famous Pittsburgh coal layer, eight feet thick and about 300 feet above the river, reaches around the city and has given an enormous coal trade to Pittsburgh, which her great shipping facilities by river and canal to every part of the Mississippi basin and by railroads in every direction, have enabled her to handle with ease. Her rivers are busy with scores of tow boats, thousands of coal boats, barges and flats, all carrying coal; and four times the quantity is sent out by rail. Since 1883 Pittsburgh has lost its name of the "Smoky City," as natural gas was then introduced and has since been used universally in the homes and factories. The clear atmosphere resulting has led to the erection of many beautiful residences and solid business blocks, and fine public buildings. Among these are the courthouse of Quincy granite, costing $2,500,000; the government building,costing $1,500,000; city hall of white sandstone, exposition building and numerous churches. Pittsburgh has a fine system of schools and a Catholic college, and the Carnegie free library. There are fifteen bridges crossing the three rivers, and a dozen lines of cable, electric and horse cars connect different parts of the city. Pittsburgh deserves its name of "Iron City," for it produces everything which can be made of iron from a fifty-eight ton gun to tacks, and has twenty-one blast furnaces, thirty-three rolling mills and forty-nine iron foundries. The city has also the largest cork factory in the world, fifty-six glass works, sixty oil refineries and twenty natural gas companies.

PIUS VI.

Pittsburgh is associated with the earliest history of our country, for in the "seven years' war" (1755-'88) England and France both claimed it and fought for its possession, and Washington began his career in these campaigns. Fort Pitt was built and named in honor of the Elder Pitt (Chatham), who was England's prime minister at the time, and whose energy secured the defeat of the French. Population, 238,617.

Pittsfield, a city of Massachusetts, 150 miles by rail from Boston. Beautifully situated on a plateau where six lakes around the city give rise to the Housatonic river, it contains a marble courthouse, a handsome athenæum, & women's seminary, and has a fine park near its western border. Among the manufactures are cotton and woolen goods, silk, boots and shoes, etc. Population, 17,281.

Pius, the name of nine popes.

Pius V., originally named Michele Ghislieri, was born of poor parents, in the village of Bosco in the year 1504, and at the age of 14 entered the dominican order. His merits were recognized by Pope Paul IV., who appointed him bishop of Sutri and Nepi in 1556 and cardinal the following year. Being chosen pope in 1566 he labored to restore discipline and morality at Rome, prohibited bullfights and other amusements and regulated the taverns of the city. He also zealously maintained the inquisition and sought to suppress heresy with a strong hand wherever it was found. But the most important event of his pontificate was the expedition which he organized in connection with Spain and Venice against the Turks, which resulted in the great naval victory of Lepanto, Oct. 7, 1571. He died in the following year, and was canonized by Clement XI. in 1712.

Pius VI., originally named Giovanni Angelo Braschi, was born at Cesena, Dec. 27, 1717, and on the death of Clement XIII. in the year 1775, he was chosen to the pontificate. His internal administration was enlightened and judicious, and to him Rome owed many substantial improvements. Soon after his accession, however, he was involved in serious conflict with the Emperor Joseph of Austria and Leopold of Tuscany, by whom he was deprived of a considerable portion of his supremacy. Soon after came the French revolution and the confiscation of all church property in France. The pope launched his

thunders, but they were not heeded, | and soon the storm burst upon his own head. The murder of the French political agent, Basseville, in a street scuffle in Rome gave the directory an excuse for attacking him. In 1797 peace was secured by the treaty of Tolentino; but new causes of contention soon arose, and in 1798 the French marched on Rome and took possession of the castle of St. Angelo. Pius was called upon to renounce his temporal sovereignty, and on his refusal to do so was imprisoned and carried to Florence. On the threatened advance of the Austro-Russian army in the following year he was transferred to Grenoble, and thence to Valence on the Rhone, where he died Aug. 28, 1799.

Pius VII., originally Gregorio Luigi Barnaba, was born at Casena, Aug. 14, 1742, and became pope in the year 1800. Rome, which had been occupied by the French for the past two years, was now restored to the papal authority, and the next year the French troops were withdrawn from the city. In 1804 Napoleon compelled Pius to come to Rome to consecrate him as emperor. He was well received, but in less than six months after his return to Rome French troops seized Ancona and finally in 1808 General Miollis entered Rome and took possession of the castle of St. Angelo. The usurpation was consummated the following year by a decree annexing Rome and all the papal territory to the French empire. The pope was then removed to Grenoble and thence to Savona, and finally to Fontainebleau, and at the latter place was compelled to sign a concordat recognizing the annexation of the Roman states to the empire. After the downfall of Napoleon the Congress of Vienna restored his territories to him, and on May 24, 1814, he reëntered Rome, the remainder of his reign being devoted to wise measures of internal administration. Throughout his life Pius was a model of gentleness, benevolence and Christian charity. He died Aug. 20, 1823. Pius IX., originally Giovanni Maria Mastai Ferretti, was born at Sinigaglia, May 13, 1792. In 1840 he became a cardinal, and on the death of Gregory XVI. in 1846, was elected to succeed him. He was avowedly the leader of the reform party, and one of his first acts was to grant an amnesty to all prisoners and exiles for political offenses. In March, 1848, he published his scheme for the government of the papal states by

PIZARRO

means of two chambers, one nominated by the pope and one chosen by the people. But the revolutionary fever of 1848 spread too fast for a reforming pope, and on November 15 his minister, Count Rossi,was murdered in broad daylight. A few days later the pope himself escaped to Gaeta, a Neapolitan seaport near the Roman frontier, from which place he issued a remonstrance to the various sovereigns of Europe. In April, 1849, a French expedition was sent to Civita Vecchia, and in July General Oudinot took possession of Rome, Pius himself returning and resuming his authority the following year. After this his policy was the very reverse of what it had been, and he continued to the end of his life an unyielding conservative. In his ecclesiastical policy he was active and uncompromising in his ultramontanism. By a bull issued in 1854 he decreed the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary as a doctrine of the church. But the most important event of his pontificate was the Vatican council, at which bishops from all parts of the world assembled in December, 1869, and continued in session until the month of July, 1870. This council first formally proclaimed the doctrine of papal infallibility, whenever the head of the church issues a decree on a subject of faith and morals to the universal church.

For several years previous to this the pope's temporal authority had only been maintained by French bayonets, and when the garrison at Rome was withdrawn on the outbreak of the war with Germany in 1870, the soldiers of Victor Emmanuel entered Rome, and for the remainder of his days the pope lived a voluntary prisoner within the Vatican, only his spiritual power remaining to him. He had the mortification to see Rome the capital of a united Italy, and Victor Emmanuel enthroned in the Quirinal with the affections of all his subjects. He died Feb. 8, 1878, and was succeeded by the present pope, Leo XIII.

Pizarro, FRANCISCO, the conqueror of Peru, was the illegitimate son of a Spanish colonel of infantry, and was born about the year 1470. He never learned to read and write, but entered the army at an early age and served under the "Great Captain," Gonsolvo di Cordova, in Italy; he was also one of Balboa's party that discovered the Pacific ocean, and soon after this became a resident of the Isthmus of Panama

on the Pacific coast. From this point, in connection with another old soldier named Diego de Almagro, he started on an expedition for the conquest of Peru in the year 1526. But not being strong enough to land and form a settlement Almagro was sent back to Panama for reënforcements, while Pizarro and part of the force remained on an island named Gallo. But the governor of Panama refused to give any further support to the enterprise and sent two vessels to bring Pizarro and his men back to Panama. The latter refused to return; and drawing a line on the sand, called upon all the men who wished to remain with him and share in the success of his enterprise to come over to his side. Thirteen men crossed the line, and the rest returned to Panama. Soon after this the governor of Panama was induced to send one vessel to Pizarro, with which he explored the coast of Peru and collected full information concerning the empire of the Incas. He then returned to Panama, and soon afterwards proceeded to Spain, where he applied for authority to undertake the conquest of Peru. On the 26th of July, 1529, a commission was given him for his enterprise with the title of captain-general, while Almagro received the title of marshal. Pizarro sailed from San Lucar on the 19th of January, and from Panama the following year with three vessels, containing less than 200 men and between thirty or forty horses. Almagro was to follow with reenforcements. Landing at Tumbez, the Spaniards commenced the march inland in May, 1532, and in November entered the city of Cajamarca. The Inca Atahualpa being on his way to Cuzco, the capital of his empire, was treacherously captured and put to death by Pizarro, who first extorted a large sum equal to several million dollars for his ransom. Pizarro then marched to Cuzco and set up the young Inca Manco as nominal sovereign of the empire, being careful to retain the real power in his own hands. In 1535 he founded the city of Lima as the capital of his new government. Two or three years later a fierce quarrel arose between Pizarro and Almagro, the latter claiming that he was the lawful governor of Cuzco, and that he had not received his full share of the honors and riches to which he was entitled. This contest almost assumed the proportions of a civil war, and resulted in Almagro's being captured and behead

PLAGUE

ed by Pizarro. But Almagro's followers being driven to desperation by the manner in which they were treated by Pizarro, formed a conspiracy against him, and on the 26th of June, 1541, he was attacked in his house while partaking of his midday meal, and assassinated, his body being buried in the cathedral by stealth and at night. Francisco Pizarro is one of the most prominent in the history of the conquest of the new world. He was able, brave and resolute, but perfidious and cruel to the last degree. The execution of the Inca Atahualpa is a stain upon his reputation that time will never remove; like the blood on Lady Macbeth's right hand, it is a "damnéd spot" that cannot be washed out.

Plague, a term applied during the middle ages to all fatal epidemics, but now restricted to a contagious fever prevailing at certain times and places epidemically. The general symptoms resemble those of other fevers-shivering, rise of temperature, pain in the head, back, limbs, etc. Bleeding from the lungs, though rare in recent epidemics, was formerly regarded as a characteristic symptom of the "black death" in its most virulent form. About the second or third day the most distinctive features of the disease present themselves-glandular swellings, usually in the neck, armpits or groins; these generally break and lead to prolonged suppuration. The cause of the epidemic has never been determined. It is certainly very infectious, and the infection may be conveyed by clothes, bedding, etc., as well as by direct contact with the sick. It is also the most destructive of all epidemics. The black death of 1348-'50 is believed to have destroyed more than half the population of Europe. The first extensive outbreak of this disease was in the 6th century of our era, and devastated the whole Roman empire. It is supposed to have started from Lower Egypt; but from this time frequent epidemics occurred in Europe. The last outbreak in England was in the year 1665, and was called the "Great Plague of London." Nearly 100,000 persons perished in London alone during its ravages. Since the end of the 17th century it has only twice visited western Europe; in 1707-'14 it spread from Russia and Hungary as far as Sweden, Denmark and Bavaria, and in 1720-'22, being introduced into Syria from Marseilles, it destroyed almost half the population

fixed stars by their clear, steady light, while the stars have a sparkling or twinkling appearance. The planets as observed from the earth move sometimes from west to east and sometimes from east to west, which fact was very puzzling to astronomers until they learned that the sun and not the earth is the center of our system. The planets in the order of their size are as follows: Mercury, diameter, 3,000 miles; Mars, diameter, 4,200 miles; Venus, diameter, 7,600 miles; Earth, diameter, 7,925 miles; Uranus, diameter, 33,000 miles; Neptune, diameter, 37,000 miles; Saturn, diameter, 73,000 miles; Jupiter, diameter, 90,000 miles. As the sizes of spheres have the same ratio to each other as the cubes of their diameters, it can readily be seen that while Mercury the smallest of these planets is only a little over one twentieth the size of the earth, Jupiter, the largest, is nearly 1,500 times larger than the earth, and more than 23,000 times larger than Mercury. The time required for Neptune's revolution around the sun is estimated at about 165 of our years. The revolution of Uranus occupies 30,686 of our days, or a little over 84 of our years; that of Saturn 10,759 days, or nearly 30 of our years; that of Jupiter 4332.584 days, or nearly 12 years; that of Mars 687 days, or less than two years; that of the Earth, 3654 days; that of Venus, 224.7 days; that of Mercury, 87.96 days. For the three laws of planetary motion, see Kepler.

Plantagenet, the name of a family that in 1154, in the person of Henry II., succeeded to the throne of England, on the extinction of the Norman dynasty in the male line, and reigned till 1485, when the battle of Bosworth gave the crown to the house of Tudor. The Plantagenet kings were Henry II., who reigned from 1154 to 1189; Richard I., who reigned from 1189 to 1199; John, from 1199 to 1216; Henry III., from 1216 to 1272; Edward I., from 1272 to 1307; Edward II., from 1307 to 1327; Edward III., from 1327 to 1377; Richard II., from 1377 to 1399; Henry IV., from 1399 to 1413; Henry V., from 1413 to 1422; Henry VI., from 1422 to 1455; Edward IV., from 1455 to 1483; Edward V., who, being a youth of 13, when his father died in 1483, was placed in the Tower by his uncle Richard III., and there supposed to have been murdered by Richard's order; Richard III., from 1483 to 1485. See articles under these names, and for the great struggle be

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tween the rival branches of the Plantagenets, see ROSES, WARS OF THE.

Plantain, a plant of which there are over 100 species, distributed over all parts of the world, but most abundant in cold and temperate regions. The greater plantain or way bread is the most common. It is a perennial with broad, ovate stalked leaves and long cylindrical spikes, growing in pastures, waysides, etc. Its seeds are a favorite food of birds, and the gathering of the spikes to feed cage-birds is very famil

iar to every one. The leaves are applied to wounds in many countries.

Plants. Our general idea of a plant is that of an organic body growing from a germ out of the earth and adhering to it in such a manner as to have no power of changing its position. The most obvious distinction between plants and animals is that the latter may move, while the former must remain fixed and stationary; yet there are some animals, such as the sea-anemone, which are as fixed as a plant; and all plants are more or less sensitive to the sun's rays, and move more or less in response to the same. Neither can we make a formal distinction between them in respect to the food they require; for while it is true that plants live upon the salts and water of the soil and the carbonic acid and oxygen