was sorry because he had a fit of the gout, or suffered a public flagellation; though, in fact, the body cannot suffer without the participation of the mind. Hence it appears that the prevalent cause of Sorrow is privation, though the effects are positive misery.

II. FEAR.

The second effect produced by the hatred of Evil, that we shall mention, is FEAR.

Fear is a painful sensation, produced by the immediate apprehension of some impending Evil. This evil may consist in being deprived of what we at present enjoy, in being disappointed in what we had expected, or in the infliction of a positive misery.

The passion of Fear is still more painful than that of Sorrow, which notwithstanding its severity has, when calmed into an affection, something soothing in its nature. Fear produces an agony and anxiety about the heart, not to be described; and it may be said to paralyze the soul in such a manner, as to render it insensible to every thing but to its own misery. Inertness and torpor pervade the whole system, united with a constriction of the integuments

of the body, and also a certain sense of being fettered, or of being rendered incapable of motion. The eyes are pallid, wild, and sunk in their sockets; the countenance is contracted and wan; the hair stands erect, or at least this sensation is excited, which every child experiences, as often as he is terrified by stories of ghosts, witches, &c.; the bowels are strongly affected, the heart palpitates, respiration labours, the lips tremble, the tongue falters, the limbs are unable to obey the will, or support the frame. Dreadful shrieks denote the inward anguish. These are often succeeded by syncopies, which, while they manifest that the sufferings are greater than nature can sustain, afford a temporary relief.

Such are the external signs which indicate the wretched state of mind, under this horrid passion. Since torpor, debility, and painful constrictions, frequently accompany fear more than any other passion, the Emotions will of consequence be less vivid. Instead of violent transports, a deep depression and numbness, as it were, both of body and mind, characterize the passion. These may be visible to the attentive spectator, and are not less expressive of inward anguish.

When the effects of fear operate powerfully,

without any mixture of hope, these passive impressions are predominant: but when there is a possibility of escape, the mind re-acts with wonderful energy. Abject depression is changed into violent agitations; collected force takes place of debility; and tremendous exertions succeed to a state of torpor and immobility. When a personal attack is apprehended, momentary and trembling strength is thrown into the muscles;-the body instinctively places itself in the attitude of defence;-a mixture of fierceness and wild horror is expressed in the countenance, well adapted to alarm and terrify the enemy. If escape be attempted, an unusual energy is thrown into the limbs, enabling the sufferer to precipitate his flight, by exertions that would have been impracticable in a more composed state of mind.

Consternation. This species of fear is a strong foreboding of tremendous evils, which are likely to follow misfortunes that have already taken place. It may seize an Individual, when surprised by the arrival of some deadful disaster; or at the instant of his being made acquainted with the event. But it chiefly refers to alarms of a more extensive nature; to those excited by some general calamity, which threatens evils beyond the power of calculation. Earthquakes,

volcanic eruptions, inundations, conflagrations, the sudden approach of an incensed and powerful enemy, are of this kind. Here the danger is widely diffused. Fear is rendered contagious; and by the influence of social sympathy, the Consternation becomes universal, without having any particular tendency, or being directed to any particular object. When calamities of this nature arrive in a sudden and unexpected manner; particularly where the ideas of perfect security had been indulged, and perhaps were triumphant and insulting; Surprise, Wonder, Astonishment, manifest their powers, by the augmentation of misery; while a troubled imagination aggravates every possibility of horror. In all these cases, the expressions of fear are wild and frantic. Beating the breast, tearing the hair, loud lamentations indicate the agony of the soul.

Perhaps the panic which has sometimes seized a whole army, flushed with victory, will illustrate the preceding observations. Rapid success had inspired the arrogant idea of invincibility. An unexpected defeat, has not only subdued this delusion, but given an opposite direction to the active imagination, and has transferred the idea of invincibility to the Enemy. The troops now think that it will be in vain, any

longer to resist a power which has shewn itself superior to their own wonted prowess; and where resistance is supposed to be absolutely in vain, it never will be attempted. The force of superstition, either in depressing or animating courage, is well known. This has made the most Valiant tremble at shadows; and consecrated banners have secured victory over an host of enemies. Even the warlike Achilles, who was the bulwark of the Grecian cause, and whose sole delight was in the tumults of war, trembled at the sudden appearance of Minerva.*

Abject Fear, which is accompanied by the more silent symptoms of depressed spirits, seems to be inspired chiefly by the idea of an irresistible power in its cause. This also is the faithful companion of Superstition. It is easily excited in feeble minds by every tale of horror. It is very observable in those who are led into captivity, or to prison; in those detected in the commission of a crime, which exposes them to the severity of the law; in those who are under the expectation of immediate punishment: that is, in cases which admit of no escape or redress.

Terror is that species of fear, which rouses to defend or escape; producing the violent agitations which have been already noticed.

* Θαμβησιν δ Αχίλλους. See Homer. Iliad. Α. 1. 199.