reign, as described by contemporary writers, some of whom openly opposed his proceedings in more advanced life. Those who only know Henry through the writings of controversialists, are unacquainted with his early character as described by Erasmus, Pace, and other Romanists, who cannot be considered merely as personal flatterers.

Henry VIII. was proclaimed king, April 23, 1509, the day after his father's decease. One of the first acts of the new monarch and his council was, to carry into effect the desire of the late king, by remitting the outstanding demands against many individuals, and returning the amount of numerous fines which had been unjustly levied; but the claims for restitution were so numerous and so large, that few were satisfied. The -popular outcry against Empson and Dudley, the ministers by whose instrumentality fines had been levied, was great, and they were sacrificed to the displeasure of the nation. They were imprisoned; but no just ground of accusation could be found, for they had acted in obedience to the commands of the late king. Yet, in the following year they were found guilty, and executed for high treason, on an absurd charge that they had conspired against Henry VII. The king probably acted contrary to his better judgment, to satisfy the public outcry against these unhappy agents of his father.

The new ministers of state were chosen by the advice of the countess of Richmond, the venerable grandmother of the king. She became a wife and mother at a very early age, and was shortly afterwards left a widow, but she acted, during a long life, with singular wisdom and prudence. Archbishop Warham and bishop Fox were skilful administrators of public affairs when matters of religion were not concerned; the latter had been much employed in foreign negotiations. The earl of Surrey and others were able conductors of military affairs, according to the views of that day. Attention was immediately directed to the princess Catherine of Arragon. She had been for a few months

the wife of prince Arthur. On his death, the late king detained her in England: at first to clear any question as to her having children, and then that she might become the wife of prince Henry, when he should be of sufficient age, lest the pecuniary and political advantages of the union should be lost. Her father, Ferdinand, king of Spain, consented to this marriage, which the pope Julius III. authorized by a bull, or decree, in which, as is usual in those instruments, he assumed power to dispense with the laws both of God and of man. The princess was not averse to the marriage, though it was not liked by the youthful Henry, then twelve years old. Henry VII. was at first eager for the union, but afterwards disinclined to it, when age and infirmities turned his thoughts to matters beyond mere worldly policy. He was advised against the marriage by archbishop Warham and others, but his proceedings were irresolute and vacillating. In June, 1505, when Henry attained his fourteenth year, his father caused him to sign and read before the council a declaration that he would not fulfil the contract with Catherine; but this proceeding was concealed from Ferdinand, and the princess continued to reside in England. Fox, bishop of Winchester, one of the chief counsellors, states, that notwithstanding the protestation and the delay, the union was still contemplated by Henry VII.

During this interval, the young king's mind became more favourably disposed towards Catherine; there were also some apprehensions, lest her marriage with any one else might tend to disturb him on the throne; one ground of the claim urged by Henry VII. had been his descent from the widow of Henry v. It is probable

that various considerations rendered this union desirable; therefore the bull of Julius III. was considered a sufficient dispensation. The marriage was solemnized on June 3, six weeks after the king's accession; it was followed by a coronation on the 24th, unusually splendid. The queen was pleasing in her person,

"beautiful and goodly to behold." She was several years older than the king, learned beyond what was usual for females, dignified in her manners, and attached to the ceremonials of the Romish church, to an extent which rendered her superstitious and bigoted. She possessed the affections of her husband, and amidst all the gaieties of the court, he treated her with kindness and respect. They lived for several years in domestic harmony. Whatever may be supposed by some, the early court of Henry VIII. was comparatively correct, amidst all the rudeness and grossness of the age. Even Erasmus, ten years afterwards, speaks of the king and queen as affording an example of "chaste and concordant wedlock." The encouragement of learned men, and of the polite arts, is frequently noticed. There was, however, a turn for showy pastimes, especially the expensive pageants then common, which rapidly diminished the royal treasures. Part of these were also lavished upon a costly troop of horse-guards, and part upon the continued celebration of jousts and tournaments, of which Henry was very fond, while his health and strength allowed him to join in them. His muscular frame, and well exercised strength, made him usually the most distinguished in these mimic combats, even more than any inclination of his opponents to submit to their king. The royal taste for these pleasures, and for convivial enjoyments, was speedily carried to excess, being encouraged by Thomas Wolsey, who, as the royal almoner, had constant access to the king, whereby he soon acquired great influence over him.

Wolsey, the son of a butcher, was born at Ipswich, in 1471. He was early a student at Oxford. Being admitted to the clerical order, he showed himself a lover of pleasure more than a lover of God: while priest of a country parish, he was set publicly in the stocks, for taking part in a drunken riot; but such was the degraded conduct of ecclesiastics in those days, that this did not prevent his subsequent preferment. Having become tutor to the sons of the

marquis of Dorset, he obtained the patronage of that nobleman, and a benefice; afterwards he was placed upon the list of royal chaplains. An opportunity for showing great promptness and ability, during a negotiation between Henry VII. and the emperor Maximilian, led to his appointment to the deanery of Lincoln, which was followed by further rewards and offices in the church. At that time it was not uncommon for ecclesiastics to be employed in secular affairs. Such proceedings have ever been hurtful to the church, and the country in which they occur. Bishop Fox, observing Wolsey's pleasant qualities as a companion, and the suppleness of his behaviour, recommended him to the notice of Henry VIII., thinking thereby to supplant the earl of Surrey, to whom the king was much attached, from his readiness to comply with his expensive and prodigal turn. Thus Wolsey was brought into the royal council, where he soon established himself as chief minister.

Europe was then in a peculiarly critical situation; this caused Henry to be courted by all the leading powers. The rivalry between France and Spain, which continued to agitate the continent during the succeeding century, had begun to appear. France was strengthened by recent accessions to her dominions; while the treasures of the new world poured into Spain, where Ferdinand had united several petty kingdoms: the union gave increased weight and influence to that monarch and his successors. The popedom, under its successive rulers, had for some time taken an active part in the political proceedings of the times. The empire of Germany, in alliance with Spain, was threatened from the east by the Turks. Such was the aspect which a few years openly brought forward; but for a time the warfare consequent on these political proceedings was carried on in a desultory, inefficient manner. The pope, Julius III., was one of the foremost in stirring up Henry to engage in warfare. He sent him a golden bauble in the form of a rose, perfumed with

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musk, and greased with consecrated oil, considered an honourable gift from a pope to a king! The pontiff also saluted Henry as head of the Italian league. He was elated by the papal flattery, which at that period had a powerful influence over the minds of European monarchs, according to the declaration contained in Scripture: "Babylon hath been a golden cup in the Lord's hand, that made all the earth drunken: the nations have drunken of her wine; therefore the nations are mad," Jer. li. 7, 9: see also Rev. xviii. 2. Hoping to recover Guienne and the neighbouring provinces, Henry declared his readiness to interfere in the affairs of the continent, against the advice of some of his ablest counsellors, who urged that if the nation took part in foreign affairs, it should rather be by claiming a participation in the lately discovered regions of the east and west.

An expedition was undertaken against France in 1512, but returned without the expected success, having been employed by the Spanish monarch to protect his proceedings, while he pursued his own designs on Navarre. A struggle for the mastery of the sea between England and France ended to the advantage of the former; but the lord admiral, sir Edward Howard, perished in a rash attempt upon the French fleet in Brest harbour.

In the following year, Henry headed an army, and landed at Calais, to act in alliance with the emperor of Germany, who by flattery succeeded in obtaining aid and large pecuniary supplies from Henry. After an expensive campaign, he besieged and took Terouenne and Tournay. This expedition effected nothing of importance, though at one time the French monarchy was in great peril. Henry was successful in a skirmish, called the battle of the Spurs; had the victory been followed up, the main French army would, in all probability, have given way. The French king expected this, and was prepared to flee from Paris.

Meanwhile, James Iv., king of Scotland, was in