2 INDEX TO THE SIXTH VOLUME. Patriot, the truest, and the greatest Reflection, Art of, 115 Hero, 7 Pearl-fishery of Ceylon, 178 Pearly Nautilus, description of, 149 Persian Doctor and Electrical Ma- Philosophy, true and false, compared, Physalia pelagica, or Portuguese Man- Picture Writing of the Mexicans, 47 Pity and Hatred, difference between, Places of Pute Worship, their effects, Plants, Mode of Preserving, 80 Plough, the, form and varieties of, 205 Night Alarm, 197 A Portuguese Man-of-War, or Physalia, Prayer, remark on its efficacy, by Printing-press, establishment of a, in Progressive Motion in Mau, 243 Providence, remark on by a Persian Prudence, value of, 115 Asaph, St., Cathedral of, 33 Babylon, Fall of, (from Martin's Bacon, Lord, portrait of, 248 Benares, scene in the City of, 57 Ceylon Elephant, Portrait of, 120 Natives of, 93 the Jury Court of, 105 Champignon, 236 Clepsydræ, or Water-clocks, Engrav- Colchester, Ruins of St Botolph's Priory at, 200 Cologne, View in, 169 Constantinople, Library at, 137 Costumes, ancient Mexican, 45 Crichton, the Admirable, portrait of, 196 David's, St, Cathedral of, Pembroke- Religion, a guide and protector, 103 Rich Man and his Goods, a fable, 94 on Animal and Vegetable Life, Progressive Motion in Man, 243 Sago, how manufactured, 62 Leaning Tower of, 2 Science, pursuit of, its advantages, 20 and Islands of. 82, 162, 250 Scripture texts, benefit to be derived 140 Shark-Charmers, Ceylonese, 178 mau, 150 Sheep, effect of Music on, 173 Shiant Isles, basaltic character of, 88, Shirbourn Castle, Oxfordshire, 71 Smelling salts, how prepared, 182 Sobriety and Industry, pleasures of, Social feelings, remark on, 13 Success, remark on its uncertainty, 174 Vegetable Productions of Ceylon, 158 Suffolk, Churches in, 67 Superstition of the Pearl-divers in A Popular, No. III. Tanjore, Lines by the Rajah of, 54 Terms, on misuse of, 52 Thrushes, remark on their mode of in- Time, misery of not improving, 71 Tolmen, in Cornwall, account of, 64 Truth; remarks on the love of, 154 opinion of Philip de Mornay INDEX TO THE ENGRAVINGS. Dunvegan Castle, Isle of Sky, 85 Elephants, wild, Method of catching Eltham, Kent, Remains of the Royal Ennan-dowan Castle, Ross-shire, 88 French Gypsies, 40 Fungi, three species of, 237 Göttingen, a City of Hanover, 241 Gypsies, French, Group of, 40 Hat-maker's Battery, 13 Heat, illustrations of its effects, 60, 61 illustrate the measurement of, 104 Lac Insect, in its different states, 117 way of, 224 Liège, Bishop's Palace at, 49 Madrid, Great Street, and Fountain of the Royal Palace at, 213 view of the City of, 121 Mimosa grandiflora, or large-flowering American Steamer at a Natural History, objects of, illustra- Norris Castle, Isle of Wight, View Owhyhee, View of the Volcanic Region Paintings, Mexican, Specimens of, 48 Village Pastor, the, 80 Vinegar, Aromatic, how prepared, 207, practical, its advantages, 104 · Walton, Izaak, remark by, 67 Water-filter, simple, 62 Wealth and Civilization, remarks on Wealth, Progress of Society in, consi- Wheal Friendship Copper-mine, the Whisky, illicit Distillation of, in Scot- Wight, Isle of, No. V., 21 Winter, remarks on, 54 Witches and Witchcraft, remarks on, Saragossa, Bridge across the Ebro at Saragossa, Leaning Tower at, 1 Souffleur, Mauritius. view of, 77 Stones of Stennis, 256 Toadstool, 236 Ulm, Wirtemburg, Town-house of, 89 Wheal Friendship Copper-mine, in- FERATURES Magazine. UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE AND EDUCATION APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE. VOL. VI. THE LEANING TOWER OF SARAGOSSA, 161 THE LEANING TOWER OF SARAGOSSA. THE Curious building represented in the engraving contained in the preceding page, is an object of considerable interest in the Spanish town of Saragossa. It bears the name of Torre Nuevo, or New Tower, which is rather inapplicable now, considering that it has been erected since the year 1594; its present use is that of a belfry. We need hardly tell our readers that it does not stand upright; they will see it in the view, leaning rather fearfully towards the church, which stands on the opposite side of the street. It looks, indeed, like its famous rival of Pisa*, as though every moment it were going to fall; but it has looked the same for nearly the last two hundred and fifty years, and has not fallen yet. It is rather lofty, the ascent to its top being by 280 steps; and from the upper balcony a noble prospect is gained. The style of its architecture is pretty and ornamental; and the material employed in its construction is brick. "At first sight of this curious edifice," says Mr. Locker, from whom we have borrowed our view of it, "the question, 'How it came so?' instantly occurred to us; but we found it not so easy to obtain a solution, for the critics of Saragossa seem as much divided in opinion as those of Pisa; and though their tower is not so old by four centuries, the cause of its declination is involved in equal perplexity. It is not improbable that the foundation may have sunk during its erection, and that the architect may have carried up the remainder of his work as a triumph of his art, counterbalancing the inferior side, in order to prevent the fabric from oversetting, in the same manner as the antiquaries profess to have discovered in the construction of the Pisan tower." The city of Saragossa possesses many attractions in an architectural point of view, and before the terrible sieges which it had to sustain against the French, did boast many more. The first siege of this city is one of the most wonderful known; indeed, to use the words of Mr. Southey, "there is not, in the annals of ancient or of modern times, a single event recorded, more worthy to be held in admiration now and for evermore." Saragossa was one of the few cities which succeeded in holding out against Buonaparte, when he first attempted to make himself master of the kingdom of Spain; and the conduct of its inhabitants, in the midst of the calamities to which they were exposed, affords truly a noble example of constancy and valour. It was on the 14th of July, 1808, shortly before the first British army, under the Duke of Wellington, sailed for Portugal, that a French force, under Lefebvre Desnouettes, first advanced to take possession, as was thought, of Saragossa. The city was unfortified, being only surrounded by a brick wall, from ten to twelve feet high; nor did its situation afford any advantages for defence. It is curious that a writer, who lived more than a century back, speaking of its want of fortifications, adds, "but this defect is repaired by the bravery of the inhabitants." After the proofs which the inhabitants have given of their courage, this praise, as Mr. Southey observes, appears like prophecy. On this occasion they were under the orders of Palafox, and that general took such measures as he deemed best suited to the emergency. On the morning following their arrival, the French attempted to storm the city, but, after much loss, were obliged to desist from their attack. A delay of nine days ensued, and the assault was then renewed; but, meeting with a fresh repulse, Lefebvre See Saturday Magazine, Vol, II., p. 242, began to bombard the city. Shells and grenades were showered down in fearful profusion, and there was not one building which was bomb-proof within the walls. The inhabitants, however, worked well and bravely against their powerful assailants. "They tore down the awnings from their windows, and formed them into sacks, which they filled with sand, and piled up before the gates, in the form of a battery, digging round it a deep trench. They broke holes for musketry in the walls and intermediate buildings, and stationed cannon where the position was favourable for it. Women of all ranks assisted; they formed themselves into companies,—some to relieve the wounded, some to carry water, wine and provisions, to those who defended the gates. The Countess Burita instituted a corps for this service; she was young, delicate, and beautiful. In the midst of the most tremendous fire of shot and shells she was seen coolly attending to those occupations which were now become her duty; nor throughout the whole of a two months' siege, did the imminent danger to which she incessantly exposed herself, produce the slightest apparent effect upon her, or in the slightest degree bend her from her heroic purpose." Nor was she the only heroine. On one occasion, it happened that all the men who defended a battery against which the French directed a tremendous fire, had been killed; Augustina Saragossa, a young woman of the lower ranks, happened to arrive with refreshments, at the moment when the citizens were hesitating to re-man the guns. She sprang forward, "over the dead and dying, snatched a match from the hand of a dead artilleryman, and fired off a six-and-twenty pounder; then jumping upon the gun, made a solemn vow never to quit it alive during the siege." She lived, however, throughout the rest of that siege and the whole of the second, after the termination of which, she fell, with other prisoners, into the hands of the French. Colonel Napier is disposed to view these efforts of female heroism rather more coldly than the writer from whom we take the above extract--Mr. Southey. "The current romantic tales," he says, "of women rallying the troops, and leading them forward at the most dangerous periods of this siege, I have not touched upon, and may, perhaps, be allowed to doubt, although it is not unlikely, that when suddenly environed with horrors, the delicate sensitiveness of women driving them to a kind of phrensy, might produce actions above the heroism of men; and in patient suffering, their superior fortitude is manifest; wherefore, I neither wholly believe, nor will deny, their exploits at Saragossa; merely remarking, that for a long time afterwards, Spain swarmed with heroines, clothed in half uniforms, and loaded with weapons." At length, on the third of August, the French opened their breaching-batteries; the slight walls were quickly knocked down, and the besiegers rushed forward to the attack. They entered the street of St. Engracia, so calle after a famous convent of that name, and passing down to its extremity, set fire to the General Hospital. A hideous and revolting spectacle ensued; the sick and wounded threw themselves from the windows to escape the flames, and the madmen, who were confined within the building, 'issued forth," says Colonel Napier, "among the combatants, muttering, shouting, singing, and moping, according to the character of their disorder, while drivelling idiots mixed their unceasing cries with the shouts of contending sol liers." much fighting, the French succeeded in forcing their way into the street called the Cozo, in the very centre of the city; and before evening, they were in After possession of one half of Saragossa. Lefebvre now "Head Quarters, St. Engracia. Capitulation." The reply of the Spaniard was equally laconic : THE COAL TRADE OF NEWCASTLE AND THE number of working collieries on the river Tyne in the The collieries on the Tyne are capable of raising double their present quantity of coals with the same machinery, but not with the same number of men. Those on the Wear are capable of raising one-half more. The reason why these collieries do not work to their full extent, is, that there is not a sufficient market to take off the quantity of coal that could be so raised. A much greater proportion of superior coals comes from the collieries on the Wear, than from those on the Tyne. lieries on the Wear has increased, and collieries of larger Within the preceding fifteen years, the number of colpower have come into action during that time. Several new collieries have also been opened on the Tyne, whilst on the Tees there has been a considerable increase in the export of coals. In some cases, the coal which is obtained from the pit is system of working the mines, all the coal, or nearly all, is about 90 per cent.; and, according to the present improved got out of the earth; that which remains behind being scarcely worth mentioning. "Head Quarters, Saragossa War to the knife." The contest which ensued was indeed terrific; Mr. Southey calls it "unexampled in history," and describes it with his usual graphic power. "One side of the Cozo," he says, "a street about as wide as Pall Mall, was possessed by the French; and in the centre of it, their general, Verdier, gave his orders from the Franciscan convent. The opposite side was maintained by the Aragonese, who threw up batteries at the openings of the cross-streets, within a few paces of those which the French erected against them. The intervening space was presently heaped with dead, either slain upon the spot, or thrown out from the windows. Next day, the ammunition of the citizens began to fail; the French were expected every moment to renew their efforts for completing the conquest, and even this circumstance occasioned no dismay, nor did any one think of capitulation. One cry was heard from the people, wherever Palafox There are collieries in the North which have cost from rode among them, that, if powder failed, they were ten or twelve thousand to 150,000 pounds, in sinking the ready to attack the enemy with their knives-for- pits, the establishment of machinery, and every thing remidable weapons, in the hands of desperate men." For-quisite for putting the coal on board the craft, whether into keels or barges, or into ships. This sum includes railways, tunately, however, fresh supplies arrived, and the conwagons, and machinery. test was then renewed, being continued from street to street, from house to house, and from room to room. This state of almost uninterrupted conflict lasted throughout eleven successive days and nights; neither party evincing the slightest disposition to yield. The Spaniards fought like men who knew the doom which awaited them, in the case of their being vanquished; and the French were maddened with indignation at such resistance from a town, which all the rules of war declared to be untenable. It was almost certain death for either party to appear by day-light within reach of the houses occupied by the other; but when darkness came on, the combatants frequently dashed across the street to attack each other's batteries. The number of the killed was very great, and their bodies lay where they fell; the atmosphere was tainted, and it was feared that pestilence would ensue. Palafox adopted the expedient of tying ropes to the French prisoners, and pushing them forward to bring away the bodies; for he knew that it would be only exposing his followers to certain death, were he to send them to perform the task. Throughout the whole of this dreadful trial, the fortitude of the besieged remained unshaken; their spirit seemed to rise with their successes, and at length they left the French only one-eighth instead of one-half of the city. News began to arrive which was very disheartening to the enemy; and on the morning of the 14th the French columns were discovered in full retreat. Saragossa was less fortunate on the second occasion of its being besieged by the French, in the month of November, the same year. After holding out till the middle of February in the following year, it was obliged to capitulate. WITH the hand we demand, we promise, we call, dismiss, threaten, entreat, supplicate, deny, refuse, interrogate, admire, reckon, confess, repent; express fear, express shame, express doubt; we instruct, command, unite, encourage, swear, testify, accuse, condemn, acquit, insult, despise, defy, disdain, flatter, applaud, bless, abase, ridicule, reconcile, recommend, exalt, regale, gladden, complain, afflict, discomfort, discourage, astonish; exclaim, indicate silence, and what not? With a variety and a multiplication that keep pace with the tongue, -——MONTAIGNE. Collieries are usually worked by adventurers. On the Tyne there are only five proprietors, out of the forty-one collieries on that river, who work their own mines; on the Wear there are only three; all the rest are in the hands of lessees, or adventurers. The aggregate money-capital employed by the coal-owners on the river Tyne, amounts to about a million and a half, exclusive of the craft in the river. Some of these persons are owners of the craft, but many hire keels or barges. The money-capital employed on the Wear is estimated at from six to seven hundred thousand pounds. The wages of the colliers, if they could have full employment, are ample; but there is not full employment for them: fourteen shillings a week is their lowest wages; but they could earn five shillings per day, if they had work to enable them so to do. There are a great number of well-meaning persons who have expressed great anxiety, arising from an apprehension that the time was rapidly approaching when the coal-mines of England would be exhausted, and that future generations would be deprived of the solace and comfort of a good coalfire. In order to allay this natural anxiety, the following estimate of the extent and produce of the coal-mines of two counties in England only, and the proportion excavated, is given on the authority of Mr. Hugh Taylor, colliery agent to the Duke of Northumberland. This estimate does not include the coal-fields of Yorkshire, Cumberland, Lancashire, Staffordshire, Warwickshire, Monmouthshire, Gloucestershire, Somersetshire, or Wales. The Durham Coal Field.-From South Shields south ward to Castle Eden, 21 miles; thence westward to West Auckland, 32 miles; north-east from West Auckland to Eltringham, 33 miles; and thence to Shields, 22 miles; being an extent or area of square miles. Northumberland Coal Field.-From Shields north 27 miles, by an average breadth of 9 miles, being .... 594 243 837 Total square miles Portion Excavated.-In Durham, on the Tyne, say 39 square miles; on the Wear 40 square miles-making 79 square miles. twenty-six square miles; making the total excavated in those In Northumberland, say thirteen miles by two, equal to two counties to be 105 square miles. Thus leaving 732 square miles of coal in the counties of Durham and Northumberland only, yet to be excavated. Estimating the workable coal-strata at an average thick be 12,390,000 tons; and of 732 square miles, 9,069,480,000 ness of twelve feet, the solid contents of one square mile will tons. Deduct one-third for loss by small coal, interceptions by dikes, and other interruptions, 3,023,160,000, there remains 6,046,320,000 tons: a quantity adequate to supply the present vend from Newcastle, Sunderland, Hartley, Blythe, and Stockton, of 3,500,000 tons annually for a period of 1727 years. There is also a considerable extent of coal-field in the northern and southern districts of Northumberland; but the foregoing comprises that which is continuous, and most suitable and available for exportation. The number of persons employed under ground in the works on the Tyne are,-Men. 4937; Boys, 3554; together 8491. Above ground-Men, 2745; Boys, 718. Making together 3463; which, added to the number employed under ground, will make a total of 11,954. which, in round numbers, may be called 12,000. In the works on the river Wear there are 9,000 men and boys employed; which, with the 12,000 employed in the works on the Tyne, make the number engaged in digging and raising coal, and delivering it to the ships on the two rivers, to be 21,000. From the best calculations it would appear, that averaging the coasting-vessels that carry coals to the size of 220 London chaldrons each vessel, there would be 1400 vessels employed, which would require 15,000 seamen and boys to navigate them. This enumeration does not include returns from Blythe, Hartley, or Stockton, or from Scotland, but is strictly confined to the coal-works on the rivers Tyne and Wear. In the year 1827, according to the Custom-House returns, there were 606 collier-ships belonging to the port of Sunderland, the tonnage of which amounted to 102,454 tons; and the number of ships that cleared out in that year with coals, was 7518. The town of Sunderland is principally, if not entirely, supported by the coal-trade; and there are variety of manufactures of different descriptions dependent upon it. The quantity of coals exported to foreign countries from Sunderland, on an average of four years, was 34,000 London chaldrons, and those sent coastwise 1,050,000 London chaldrons. The collieries on the Tyne and Wear are subject to various accidents; more especially those which supply the best coals. The principal catastrophes to which they are subject are explosions, creeps, and drowning by water. One of the difficulties in sinking a shaft is that of passing through quicksands; another is the immense quantities of water which are met with in the cavernous parts of the stratification, generally within forty or fifty fathoms of the surface, which is always dammed back by what is called a "tub," or, more properly speaking, a cast-iron caisson. Mr. Buddle, in his evidence before the House of Lords, on the coal-trade, states that he sunk a shaft which required forty fathoms of cast-iron tubbing. At forty fathoms the strata became perfectly impervious to water. One of the accidents to which collieries are liable is the breaking of this caisson, which has frequently happened, the water then rushing down into the mine below and drowning it; thereby occasioning a suspension of the works, and very great expense, till the tub could be repaired, and the water drawn off. A double-power pumping-engine is then used, and there is then one shaft for the purpose of pumping the water out, and another for drawing the coal. Pits of 170 fathoms deep are subject to this drowning. Y The quantity of coal worked depends upon the quantity required for the market; but the proportion between the quantity worked and the quantity sold has been thus calculated: Taking 700,000 as the whole quantity worked, then 500,000 of that quantity is exported to London and elsewhere; 100,000, is consumed by the collieries, and sold from the pits, for land sale and home consumption; and 100,000 is wasted. The quantity of coals consumed in England and Wales is calculated as follows. In manufactories, 3,500,000 London chaldrons: in household consumption 5,500,000; making 9,000,000 London chaldrons consumed from inland collieries. The quantity sent coastwise on both sides of the sland is 3,000,000 chaldrons, making twelve millions in all, FEATS OF STRENGTH. MOST of the feats performed by jugglers and others, when properly examined, and stripped of their false colouring, prove to be either illustrations of some well-known property of matter, the application of mechanical power in an unusual way, or mere simple deceptions. The These observations may be illustrated by reference to a curious performance which took place in London some years back. The exhibitor, a strong athletic man, allowed a large stone to be laid on his chest, and broken to pieces by sledge-hammers, without appearing to suffer either pain or inconvenience. performance of this feat would appear to require Herculean strength and great endurance; but it was founded simply on a correct knowledge of the result produced by striking a large body with a smaller one. Another very curious feat is related by Dr. Brewster. John Charles van Eckenberg, a native of Harzgerode in Anhalt, travelled through Europe under the appellation of Sampson, exhibiting very remarkable feats of strength. He was a man of the middle size, and of ordinary strength; and as Dr. Desaguliers was convinced that his feats were exhibitions of skill, and not of strength, he was desirous of discovering his methods, and with this view he went to see him, accompanied by Dr. A. Stuart and others. They placed themselves round the German, so as to be able to observe accurately all that he did, and their success was so great, that they were able to perform most of the feats the same evening by themselves, and almost all the rest when they had provided a proper apparatus. The performer sat upon an inclined board, placed upon a strong, fixed, square frame; round his loins was placed a strong girdle, in the front of which was an iron ring; to this ring a rope was fastened by means of a hook. The rope passed between his legs through a hole in the upright board, against which the performer's feet were placed, and several men, or two horses pulling, were unable to draw him out of his place. With his hands he grasped the rope, and seemed to pull against the horses. The duc performance of this feat depends almost entirely on the strength of the pelvis (the hip bones), which forms a double arch, and which it would require an immense force to break, if the pressure were directed directly downwards. The bones of the legs and thighs also, when standing upright, are sufficiently strong to support a weight of four or five thousand pounds, so that there was no difficulty in resisting the force of the two horses, if the legs were kept in a proper position. To understand the first deception of breaking the stone with the sledge-hammers, we must consider the power of resistance possessed by different bodies when brought into contact with each other. The force with which two bodies strike each other when brought into contact by some impelling power, depends upon two circumstances; namely, the velocities with which they are impelled, and the weight of the bodies themselves. Thus, two bodies of equal weights, and moving towards each other |