IMPROVEMENTS IN PARIS.-The so-called Hôtel de Nantes, which since the time of the Consulate obstructed the fine space between the Tuileries and the Louvre, has at last disappeared, and no more than one week was required for this purpose. With a similar celerity, the structure in the gardens of the Palais Royal has risen out of the ground, which is destined for the exhibition of pictures of living artists.

In the Court-yard of the Palais Royal, a large temporary wooden building is being erected to serve for the next exhibition of modern paintings to be held next December.

Among other large operations is the alteration of the prison of La Force, which is under the direction of M. Gibier, architect, of Paris. It is now completed and being occupied. Being arranged for a house of detention for prisoners waiting for trial, it provides for 1200 cells, in which the inmates can be separately kept. It is said to be the first of the kind tried in France to any extent, In France, separation is enforced before trial; but after conviction. in the jails and the hulks the prisoners are allowed to associate. The arrangements in La Force are taken from the last English, Americo-English, and Netherlandish models; and the contrivances for warming and ventilation are said to ensure perfection.

Among the enterprises now in progress, we may mention the publication of the Encyclopedie d'Architecture, by M. Victor Calliat, architect. It is to include every practical department and detail, as masonry, carpentry, marble-work, iron-work, cabinetwork, plumbing, furniture, &c.; and will be so far of universal use that it will consist chiefly of plates, with very little text. Some of these plates we have seen, and are favourably impressed with the prospects of the work. The work will be a kind of journal, appearing in parts and with illustrations. It will be published on the 1st and 15th of each month; and will contain in each part five engravings. The subscription is about a pound a-year. M. Calliat is the architect who published the magnificent works, the 'Hotel de Ville' and the 'Parallele des Maisons de Paris.'

A railway arcade, similar to that of the Lowther Arcade, in the Strand, is being constructed by the South Eastern Railway Company, on the left hand side of the approach to their terminus on the property in their possession, abutting upon Tooley-street. The design is rather an elegant one, and consists of a succession of shops on either side for the sale of fancy and other articles in requisition by railway travellers, with a large refreshment-room in the centre of the thoroughfare which fronts the railway terminus. The building, between 100 and 200 feet in length, has its basement in Tooley-street, from whence it rises upwards of 60 feet, divided into two stories of 30 feet each, the upper elevation forming the arcade on a level with the railway, and the lower part in Tooley-street forming a range of ordinary shops. There are rooms above the shops, and the floors throughout the building are fire-proof. The front is to be in the Italian style of architecture, and the building, upon which a large number of men have been at work for the last two months, is to be completed and opened by Christmas.

PRUSSIA.-The Prussian Moniteur has published a statistical statement of the railway works of that country. from which it appears that 21 undertakings, comprising a length of 364 miles of communication, were open for through traffic in 1849. These railways conveyed 8,597,948 passengers, and 33,313,795 quintals of merchandise. The gross receipts represented 10,782,997 thalers, and the expenses were 5,443,128 thalers, leaving a surplus of 5,339,869 thalers. The capital employed in the construction being 139,740,000 thalers, the return in 1849 was 2.82 per cent. In 1848 the return was stated to have been 3.21 per cent. In 1847 4.32 per cent.; in 1846 4.97 per cent.; in 1845 4 62 per cent., and in 1844 4.74 per cent. The whole of the railways by the works executed in 1849 were augmented by about 20 miles. There are at the present time in progress of construction six other undertakings-namely, the Eastern Railway, those from Westphalia and from Saarbruck, enterprises solely at the government expense, and those from Aix-la-Chapelle to Dusseldorf from Ruhrort Crefeld and to Gladbach, and from Aix-la-Chapelle to Maestricht, constructed by private companies. When these new lines shall have been completed, the whole network of Prussian railways will comprise a length of 440 miles.

RAILWAY TUNNEL AT SIENNA.- Letters from Sienna of the 10th ult. give an account of the inauguration of that section of the Sienna Railway which passes through the tunnel at Monte Arioso, one of the most extraordinary constructions of the kind, due to the talent of the celebrated engineer, Professor Pianigiani. The prefect of Florence, the Royal Com missary of Railways, and Count Serristori, the late minister, were present at the ceremony. The train moved slowly along the tunnel, stopping under the most elevated shafts, before the principal springs of water, and before the spot where flames are seen issuing out of the earth. The train, on leaving the tunnel, was enthusiastically cheered by the numerous spectators who had assembled to witness the scene.

LIST OF NEW PATENTS

GRANTED IN ENGLAND FROM SEPTEMBER 26, TO OCTOBER 24, 1850. Six Months allowed for Enrolment unless otherwise expressed.

James Hamilton, of London, engineer, for improvements in machinery for sawing, boring, and shaping wood. - September 28.

Charles Harratt, of Royal Exchange-buildings, London, merchant, for improvements in rolling iron.-September 28. Joseph Burch, of Craig Works, Chester, printer, for improvements in printing terry and pile carpets, woollen, silk, and other materials.-September 28.

Joseph Crossley, of Halifax, carpet manufacturer: George Collier, of the same place, mechanic; and James Hudson, of Littleborough, printer, for improvements in printing yarns for, and in weaving carpets and other fabrics.-September 28.

Cyprien Theodore Tissereau of Paris, France, gentleman, for certain improvements in hydraulic clocks-October 3.

Jean Pierre Paul Amberger, of Paris, France, civil engineer, for certain improvements in the application of magnetic power for moving and stopping carriages, for giving adherence to wheels upon rails, and also for transmitting motion.-October 3. William Tudor Mabiey, of Manchester, patent agent, for certain improvements in the manufacture of soap. (A communication.) - October 3.

William Boggett, of St. Martin's-lane, Middlesex, gentleman, and William Smith, of Margaret.street, in the said county, engineer, for improvements in producing and applying heat, and in engines to be worked by steam or other elastic fluid, which engines are also applicable as pumps.-October 3.

Julian Bernard, of Buchanan-street, Glasgow, artist, for improvements in pneumatic springs, buffers, pumps, and stuffing boxes.-October 3.

Charles Bury, of Salford, Lancaster, manager, for certain improvements in machinery or apparatus for preparing and spinning, doubling or twisting silk waste, cotton, wool, flax, or other fibrous substances.-October 10.

Charles Bury, of Salford, Lancaster, manager, for certain improvements in machinery or apparatus for cleaning, spinning, doubling, and throwing raw silk.-October 10. Robert Beart, of Godmanchester, for improvements in the manufacture of bricks and tiles.-October 10.

John Scott Russell, of Great George-street, Westminster, engineer, for improvements in the construction of ships or vessels propelled by paddle-wheels, with a view to better arming the same.-October 10. William Wood, of Over Darwin, Lancashire, carpet manufacturer, for improvements in the manufacture of carpets and other fabrics -October 10.

William Henry Ritchie, of Kennington, Surrey, gentleman, for certain improvements in machinery for preparing and carding fibrous substances. (A communication)-October 10.

William Edward Newton, of Chancery lane, engineer, for improvements in manufac. turing yarns. (A communication )-October 10.

James Hamilton Browne, of the Reform Club, Pall-Mall, Esq., for improvements in the separation and disinfection of fecal matters, and in the apparatus employed therein. (A communication.)-October 10.

William Francis Fernihough, of London, engineer, for improvements in locomotive and other steam engines, and improvements in obtaining motive power.-October 10. Whiting Hayden, of Windham, Connecticut, United States of America, for an im proved regulator or apparatus for regulating the draught of the sliver on the machine, termed the "drawing frame."-October 10.

Ardolf Frederick Gurlt, of Manchester, gentleman, for an improved method of extracting silver from argentiferous minerals.-October 10.

George Michiels, of London, gentleman, for improvements in treating, and preparing potatoes for seed. (A communication.)—October 17.

John Fowler, jun., of Melksham, Wilts, engineer, for improvements in steam-engines, in raising and forcing fluids, in irrigating and draining land, and in machinery for cutting wood for drain-pipes, and other uses.-October 17.

Daniel Trowers Shears, of Bankside, Surrey, copper merchant, for improvements in the manufacture and reining of sugar. (A communication.)-- October 17. John Robert Johnson, of Crawford-street, chemist, for improvements in fixing colours on fabrics made of cotton and other fibre. (A communication.)-October 17. James Henry Baddeley, of Shelton, Stafford, engineer and designer, for improvements in the manufacture of ornamental articles of earthenware.-October 17. Thomas Richards Harding, of Lille, France, manufacturer, for improvements in ma chinery for heckling and carding flax in machinery, for combining and drawing wool and other fibrous materials, and in machinery for making parts of such machines, and for a new arrangement of the steam engine for driving flax and woollen mills, which arrangement is also applicable to other purposes where motive power is required.-October 17. Henry Bernoulli Barlow, of Manchester, consulting engineer, for improvements in spinning cotton and other fibrous materials.-October 17.

James Henry Williams, of Birmingham, manufacturer, for certain improvements in the manufacture of buttons.-October 17.

James Young, of Manchester, manufacturing chemist, for improvements in the treatment of certain bituminous mineral substances, and in obtaining products therefrom.October 17.

Jean Louis Pascal, of Moorgate-street, London, civil engineer, for an improved appa. ratus for the cure or prevention of smoky chimneys, and also for the ventilation of ships, rooms, and buildings in general,-October 24.

Thomas Beale Browne, of Hampen, near Andoversford, Gloucester, gentleman, for improvements in weaving and preparing fibrous materials, and staining or printing fabrics. (A communication.)-October 24.

Alexander Dixon, of Abercorn Foundry, Paisley, for improvements in moulding iron and other metals.-October 24.

John Mercer, of Oakenshaw, within Clayton-le-Moors, Lancashire, gentleman, for improvements in the preparation of cotton and other fabrics and fibrous materiais.October 24.

John Oliver York, of Boulogne-sur-Mer, France, for improvements in the mode or manner of generating steam in locomotive, marine, and other boilers.-October 24. John Grant, of Hyde Park-street, Middlesex, for improvements in heating and regu lating temperature.-October 24.

Aaron Rose, of Halesowen, Worcester, manufacturer, for a certain new or improved method or certain new or improved methods of manufacturing twisted gun and pistol barrels. October 24.

Samuel Jacobs, of Highgate Kendall, Westmoreland, cabinet maker, for certain improvements in printing on woollen, cotton, paper, and other substances, parts of which improvements are applicable also to the purposes of colouring, shading, tinting, or varnishing such substances.-October 24.

Bryan Millington, of Brant Broughton, Lincoln, and of the firm of Millington and Sons, of Newark-upon-Trent, Nottingham, millers, for improvements in corn-cleaning and flour dressing machines.-October 24.

Edward Clarence Shepard, of Parliament-street, Westminster, gentleman, for certain improvements in electro-magnetic apparatus, suitable for the production of motive power, of heat, and of light. (A communication.)-October 24.

LECTURES ON THE HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE,

By SAMUEL CLEGG, JUN., M.I.C.E., F.G.S.

lation; it was enacted first by Augustus, and afterwards by Nero, that no private house should exceed 70 feet in height from the ground, a law, however, that appears to have been frequently evaded. Many parts of the city were so crowded, that fearful

(PRESIDENT, HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF BUCCLEUCH, K.G.)

Lecture XI.-ROME: Domestic Architecture.

Ir is to be regretted that so little is positively known on the subject of Classical Domestic Architecture. This want of information is however the less surprising, when we consider that the Greeks and Romans were not a domestic people, and that most of their time was spent in public; besides, private residences, however wealthy the community may be, are seldom built with the same solidity as public edifices, and therefore the sooner go to decay. The great changes also that take place in domestic manners, render the habitations of one period unfitted for subsequent times; they are therefore either removed to make way for new dwellings, or so altered as to lose much of their original character: this must have been more especially the case in the great revolution that took place in manners and customs on the spread of Christianity and the dismemberment of the Roman Empire. But notwithstanding the idea of what was necessary and comfortable amongst the ancient Romans differs as widely from ours as does our domestic life from theirs, it is neither uninstructive nor uninteresting to inquire into their mode of living; for as each receding tide leaves some vestige behind it on the shore, so the manners and ideas of past ages have left traces that may be recognised in the present day.

If it had not been for the discovery of Pompeii, we should have been wholly indebted to the descriptions gleaned from various authors for our knowledge of Roman domestic architecture. This little town (buried for 1600 years) played no conspicuous part in history; and had it not been for its singular and unfortunate fate, would probably have utterly sunk into oblivion. The dwellinghouses found there may therefore be supposed to be small and insignificant compared with those of Rome, and other important cities; but still they are doubtless arranged on a similar plan, and prove a great assistance in forming an idea of the private habitations of the Romans, and their style of interior decoration.

For several centuries after the foundation of Rome, the houses were only thatched and covered with shingles; and the laws of the ædiles forbade the walls of private dwellings to be made above eighteen inches in thickness. During the time of the Commonwealth, the Romans were extremely jealous of any attempt made by a citizen to exceed his neighbours in show or style of living. Publius Cornelius Rufinus, though he had been twice consul and once dictator, was removed from the senate on account of the purchase of some silver vases. So little silver was there in Rome at this time, that when an entertainment was given by a senator, the rest of the body were accustomed to lend their plate for the occasion. Lucius Crassus was made to pull down his house on the Palatine Hill, because the roof of the atrium was supported by four columns of foreign marble-an unheard of luxury! It was owing to this atrium, that Brutus used to call him in derision, "the Palatine Venus." Even Julius Cæsar had to obtain permission to construct a pediment to his house, as this was considered a peculiar mark of distinction. Cicero says: " If you could build in heaven, where you have no showers to fear, yet you would never seem to have attained dignity without a pediment."

When Rome ceased to be a republic, all these restrictions were done away with, and the wealthy citizens of Rome seem to have vied with each other in the sumptuousness of their dwellings. The wealth of the world poured into the imperial city; it was no uncommon thing for a Roman patrician to receive as much as was equal to 160,000l. per annum from his estates, besides corn, wine, oil, and other produce. Some of these landowners are said to have possessed as many as fourteen villas in different parts of Italy, as well as a mansion in Rome. A favourite site for these luxurious villas was the beautiful shore of the bay of Naples: so splendid were those in the neighbourhood of Baiæ, that when Aristobulus, king of Judea, landed there, he imagined himself already in the capital of the universe.

Rome at one time contained 48,382 houses (including the two classes of insula and domus), ranging from the magnificent palace to the miserable, ill-lighted, and ill-ventilated lodging-house, where the poor congregated. Houses were raised to an inconvenient height, to afford shelter within the walls to the dense popuNo. 159.-VOL. XIII.-DECEMBER, 1850.

a, Vestibulum; b, Atrium; cc, Alæ; dd, Cellæ familiaricæ; ee, Courts of the Offices; f, Tablinum; g, Cavædium; h, Exedra; i, Bibliotheca; k, Cyzicene Occus; 11, Gardens; m, Pinacotheca; n, Rooms for embroidery; o, Peristyle; p, Vernal triclinium; 4, Summer triclinium; r, Winter triclinium; s, Cold bath; t, Tepid bath; v, Warm bath; w w, Sudatories; xx, Cubicula.

49

reign of Titus is said to have carried off 10,000 persons daily. The wealthier classes buying up the land on which to build their mansions, and lay out their extensive pleasure-gardens, ground and consequently house-rent, became enormously dear. In the time of Augustus a single suite of rooms in an insula, or detached house, was valued at 40,000 sesterces, between 3001, and 400l. per annum. It was intended by Nero, on the rebuilding of Rome, that each house should be an insula; but this was only partially carried into effect.

We know little about the plan or elevation of these mansions: they were probably as varied as in modern buildings. They appear to have been surrounded on three sides by colonnades fronting the streets, and occupied by shops for the sale of the produce of the estate and other commodities; but as trade was considered degrading, the sale was entrusted to freedmen, or slaves, or the shops were let, and brought a considerable rental to the proprietor of the insula. These Roman mansions must have contained a multitude of apartments, as each patrician entertained a train of clients and dependents, besides his servants and slaves. They were built around open courts, like those of the East in the present day, and had few or no windows looking towards the street.

Though, as before observed, the houses were, no doubt, various in plan, it will save confusion in describing the principal courts and chambers they contained, to follow that given by Vitruvius. First, on entering the portico, was the Vestibulum, or vestibule; this apartment was generally circular, and derived its name from the goddess Vesta, to whom it was dedicated; it was also sacred to the Lares, whose statues were placed in niches round the wall. Pavements have been found belonging to this part of the house, with the words "Cave canem" (beware the dog) formed in mosaic: this might seem to reflect upon the hospitality of the ancient Romans; but the image of a dog barking was generally placed at the foot of the statues of the Lares familiares, to denote their vigilance: the caution, therefore, might be merely a warning against offending the household gods. The Lares were supposed to be the spirits of deceased ancestors, hovering about their former abode for the protection of its inmates; the word is derived from the Etruscan "lars"- -a leader or conductor. A festival in their honour was celebrated every May, when their statues in the vestibule were crowned with flowers, and offerings of fruit presented.

The open

The vestibule led immediately into the Atrium, a large open court or hall, where visitors and clients waited. Atria are said to have been of Etrascan origin, and so called from the city Adria; they were of several kinds. The Tuscan atrium was square, built simply with four beams crossing at right angles, leaving the central space exposed to the air: when the atrium was so large as to require additional support for the beams, four columns were placed at the angles; it was then called tetrastyle. Corinthian atria were generally circular, larger, and more sumptuously adorned: those called testudine were small, and had a vaulted roof something resembling the back of a tortoise, whence their name. space in the centre was called compluvium, through which the rain fell into the impluvium, or tank, below; when the rafters were made to incline the contrary way, so as to throw the rain off outside, the atrium was said to be displuviatum. The atrium being the most public part of the house, was always decorated to the extent of the proprietor's means: with fresco paintings representing mythological subjects, or passages from history, and masterpieces from the sculptor's hand. The statues and busts of the family were also placed here, when the master of the house had a right to possess them; but such a privilege was only granted to those who had borne some high office in the state, and was equivalent to a modern coat of arms;-he who had pictures and statues of his ancestors, was accounted noble. Suits of armour, and trophies of war, were also suspended in the atrium. On each side of this court were porticoes or Ala, leading into the Cellæ familiaricæ, or apartments for domestic use. It is supposed that in town houses, the Culina, or kitchen, with its accompanying offices, was in this division.

Beyond the atrium, and merely divided from it by a curtain that could be raised or lowered at pleasure, was a sitting-room called the Tablinum. On each side of this were apartments devoted to embroidery or other work; or perhaps the picture gallery.

Beyond was the Cavadium, a smaller court, built in various styles, like the atrium. The cavædium had generally a fountain in the centre, and the compluvium was occasionally covered with a purple awning, tinging the surrounding objects with a warm hue. Some suppose the cavædium to have been merely the central part of the atrium, but in this plan it is represented as a separate division of the house. On one side is the Bibliotheca, or library; on

the other are Exhedra, or rooms for reading and conversation. The word theca signified any kind of repository-thus there was the biblio-theca for books, the pinaco-theca for pictures; the oporo-theca for keeping apples and other fruits; the apo-theca for general stores; and so on. Vitruvius recommends that the bibliotheca should look to the east; because, he says, "books are better preserved when the air and light are received from that quarter: when libraries have a southern or a western aspect, they admit those winds which, at the same time that they carry with them moths, instil also damp vapours into the books, which in process of time cause their decay." Roman libraries were adorned with pictures and busts of eminent literary men, and were furnished with shelves or drawers, where the locumenta or boxes were placed, containing the precious manuscripts: no wonder so much care was taken in their preservation, as a library in those days must have been an expensive luxury, attainable only by the few.

Proceeding onwards from the cavædium, we enter the Cyzicene occus, with its surrounding gardens. This saloon must have been a delightful summer apartment, with its large windows looking over the flowery parterres, and open also both to the cavædium and the peristyle. The occi were of several kinds: the tetrastyle, with the ceiling supported by four columns; or the Corinthian, with engaged columns and windows between; or the Egyptian, consisting of two orders. In this last kind of occus, isolated columns supported a second range of engaged columns, having the intervening wall pierced with windows; above all rose the vaulted ceiling ornamented with coffers. These saloons were made lofty to allow of the free circulation of air, so desirable during an Italian summer. Vitruvius directs that the height of all apartments which are longer than they are wide, should be "determined by making it half the sum of the length and width added together; when a square, the height is made greater in proportion by the addition of half the width." Another rule he gives is, "Take a square, one side the width, the diagonal the length; height to the trabes three-fourths the length." The occus was furnished with triclinia, or couches, so arranged that the guests reclining on them might have a full view of the garden.

The Peristyle was another large open court, and, as its name denotes, was surrounded by columns: the Villa Gordiana is said to have had a peristyle of two hundred columns. This court was generally planted with trees and shrubs, and sometimes had a fishpond in the centre: the low wall, or pluteum, connecting the columns, was hollowed out for the purpose of containing soil, in which flowers were planted. When the curtains of the tablinum and the cyzicene occus were raised, the perspective view of a Roman house seen from the vestibule must have been very beautiful; first, the richly ornamented atrium; then, through the tablinum into the cavædium, with its sparkling fountain; and beyond, the sumptuous occus, with the garden of the peristyle terminating the prospect.

Round the peristyle, and communicating with it, were the more private apartments: the vernal, summer, and winter Triclinia, or eating-rooms, appropriated to the different seasons, according to their aspect; the Cubicula, or sleeping-rooms, small chambers generally containing a recess for a bed, which was laid on a marble tressel, about six inches from the ground;-and the Baths, which were considered an essential in every house, and were arranged similarly to the bathing rooms in the public thermæ.

As the principal apartments of the house were always on the ground floor, there was no grand staircase; where there were upper rooms, they seem to have been chiefly devoted to the females of the family, who, however, did not lead so retired a life as that of the Greek ladies: here also were the Vestiarii, or wardrobe rooms, and the Penetralia, or sanctuary devoted to the penates, or penetrales, as they were sometimes called; these gods were either deified ancestors, or any of the superior divinities, under whose especial protection the house was supposed to exist.

Occasionally a terrace was formed on the flat roof, where the family met to enjoy the prospect and the cool evening breeze; this terrace was shaded by trellis-work, called pergula, and adorned with creepers and boxes planted with flowers: sometimes an aviary added to its attractions. The numerous slaves were lodged in one common chamber underground, called the Ergastulum.

In an early stage of civilisation subdivision of labour was almost unknown, and each household had to be in a great measure selfsufficient, all the principal arts and trades being carried on by its different members. Pignorius mentions more than two hundred kinds of employments that were exercised by slaves or servants in the houses of the great. Each mansion contained a carpenter, blacksmith, &c.; and not only the spinning and weaving, brewing,

and baking, but building and decorating was the work of the household slaves. Where the floors were so generally constructed of mosaic or tesselated marble, the pavimentarii, or slaves skilful in the art of constructing pavements, must have been necessary members of the family. The floors were frequently laid with small bricks placed obliquely upon their edge, so as to form an angle; a kind of work called opus spicatum, because the bricks were placed like the grains in an ear of wheat. Sometimes the brick was mixed with bits of white marble, as may be seen in Pompeii. In the more richly decorated apartments a coating of cement was laid, and upon this, mosaics of elegant design in variously-coloured stones. Occasionally, appropriate inscriptions formed a part of the mosaic floor, such as "Salve," and in the bedrooms, "Bene dormio." Numerous fine specimens of Roman pavements have been found in every part of their world-wide domain.

In preparing the walls of the rooms for the fresco paintings with which they were decorated, three coats of plaster were used: the first, rough mortar; the second was called arenatum, and was composed of sand and lime, or puzzolano; the third and last coat was called marmoratum, in which pounded marble was used. This was worked and rubbed until a perfectly smooth surface was obtained, and was capable of receiving so high a degree of polish as to reflect objects like polished marble itself. While this marmoratum was still wet, the frescoes were laid on.

The rooms were divided in height by a small cornice, above the door; the upper division being to the lower as two to three. The walls were then divided into compartments, the width of the doorway; these compartments were painted a full deep colour, such as red, cinnamon, dark green, or even black; with the exception of the central medallion, which was occupied by a design in brilliant colours.

The

The paintings were generally either historical or mythological subjects, or illustrative of passages from the poets; but occasionally landscapes or architectural pieces were introduced; the latter showing a considerable knowledge of perspective. figure pieces are designed after the manner of bas-reliefs, each figure being independent, without casting shadows one on another: foreshortening was seldom attempted. Occasionally, in smaller compartments, the medallions were brought out in white on an azure ground. Each division or panel was surrounded by a border of elaborate or richly coloured arabesque, displaying an exuberant and graceful fancy. It is difficult to assign an origin to this style of decoration, which the Romans called ropography or twig painting: the discovery of the antique frescoes has quite contradicted the idea that it was an invention of the Saracens, or peculiar to Arabian architecture, as the name of arabesque would lead one to suppose. The Romans relied more on the architecture and painting of their rooms, to produce a magnificent effect, than upon the furniture which they contained; upholstery work was almost unknown, as internal decoration was then an art and not a trade.

The art of glazing was evidently known at an early period, as a window of thick greenish glass set in lead, has been found in Pompeii; but this appears for some centuries after to have been an unusual refinement, for Vopiscus mentions glass windows as amongst the luxuries of a wealthy merchant of the name of Firmus, who lived in the reign of Aurelian: a kind of thin stone is described as generally used for windows, called lapis specularis, probably tale. Fire-places have occasionally been found amongst Roman remains; but the only chimney appears, in most instances, to have belonged to the kitchen, the rest of the house being heated with hot air.

It is to be supposed that in the various climates through which the Roman empire extended, some variations in the style of domestic building would be found necessary; but none such are discoverable from existing remains.

Of all the splendid palaces erected by the different emperors, few vestiges are left. The Palace of the Cæsars is now only a heap of ruins on the Palatine Hill. The Villa of Hadrian at Tivoli may yet be traced for a circuit of ten Italian miles; it contained theatres, palæstræ, naumachia, thermæ, and every conceivable kind of building for luxury and entertainment. In the library were numerous niches occupied by the finest statues of Grecian workmanship, and a portico near was built in imitation of the Poecile of Athens. The ruins of this villa have proved an inexhaustible mine from which the cabinets of Rome are still enriched, and some of the most beautiful antique frescoes have been found here.

The Domus Aurea, or golden house of Nero, so called from the gilded tiles of its roof, was built on the borders of an artificial lake between the Palatine and Esquiline hills, and was surrounded by

extensive pleasure gardens and porticoes. It is said that the wings of the building were united by a gallery a mile in length. In the interior the walls and ceilings were decorated with gold and mother-of-pearl, or set with precious stones; the ceiling of the great banqueting-hall was painted to resemble the firmament, and so contrived as to have a rotatory motion, and to shower down perfumed water. When this palace was completed, Nero observed, that he had now built a house fit for a gentleman. It did not long remain a monument of his extravagance, for it was partially destroyed by Vespasian, and the Coliseum built on its site.

The only palace of the Roman emperors of which enough is left standing to enable us to trace the plan, and to judge from actual observation of its extent and magnificence, is that of the Emperor Dioclesian at Spalatro; commenced A. D. 303. The building occupied twelve years, and, together with the cultivation of his garden, formed the principal amusement of the emperor during his retirement. The plan of this palace is quadrangular, about 700 feet in length by 600 feet in breadth; the walls were flanked by sixteen towers; it was constructed of the beautiful freestone of Tragutium, which is almost as fine in quality as marble: the outer walls are 7 feet in thickness. The building is intersected by two streets at right angles; in the southernmost division were the private apartments of the emperor, and two temples, the one dedicated to Jupiter, the other to Esculapius, the deities presiding over fortune and health. The former building is now the Duomo of the modern town. It is vaulted, and about 78 feet in height; the dome is constructed in brick-work, and consists of a succession of small arches one over the other, something resembling scales; the roof is covered with tiles, and a floral ornament surmounts the apex: both the temples stood within a temenos. In the great peristyle of the palace, the columns are of granite, and support arches which spring direct from the capital, without any intervening member. The building, though consisting of only one story, was capable of lodging a prætorian cohort. The principal entrance is yet standing, and is still known by the name of the golden gate; over this is a flat arch, composed of indented stones fitting into each other-the first departure from the plain wedge-shaped voussoir. Amongst the decorations in this edifice are seen the rope moulding, and the chevron or zigzag. It is difficult to believe some of the brackets to be of so early a date, so completely do they anticipate the Christian art of after-centuries; especially those supported by the winged head of a child, with the chevron ornament round the mouldings. Few ruins are more interesting than this, as so clearly showing the gradual transition of style.

The country villas of the Romans were in a style of equal magnificence with their town houses; they were divided into three parts: first, the Prætorium, or villa urbana, for the residence of the master and his immediate attendants, consisting of the atrienses or household servants, the topiarii or gardeners belonging to the pleasure grounds, the musicians, and the notarius or secretary. Secondly, the Villa Rustica, or farm department, where were lodged the procurator or bailiff; the villicus and villica, or husbandman and housekeeper; the master of the cattle; the aviarius or poulterer; and other persons employed on the farm. The third division was called the Fructuaria, consisting of storehouses for corn, oil, wine, fruit, &c.

But as much of our information respecting these villas is derived from the writings of Pliny, I cannot do better than make a few extracts from his letter describing his villa at Laurentinum, seventeen miles from Rome:-"My villa, he writes," "is large enough to afford all desirable accommodation, without being extensive. The porch before it is plain, but not mean; through which you enter a portico in the form of the letter D, which includes a small but agreeable area. This affords a very commodious retreat in bad weather, not only as it is inclosed with windows, but particularly as it is sheltered by an extraordinary projection of roof. From the middle of this portico, you pass into an inward court extremely pleasant, and from thence into a handsome hall, which runs out towards the sea; so that when there is a south-west wind, it is gently washed with the waves, which spend themselves at the foot of it. On every side of this hall, there are either folding doors, or windows equally large......On the left-hand side of this hall, somewhat farther from the sea, lies a large drawing-room, and beyond that a second of smaller size, which has one window to the rising, and another to the setting sun......The angle which the projection forms with this drawing-room, retains and increases the warmth of the sun; and hither my family retreat in winter to perform their exercises.......Contiguous to this is a room, forming the segment of a circle, the windows of which are so placed as to receive the sun the whole day; in the walls are contained a set of

cases, which contain a collection of such authors whose works can never be read too often. From hence you pass into a bed-chamber through a passage, which being boarded and suspended, as it were, over a stove which runs underneath, tempers the heat which it receives and conveys to all parts of this room. The remainder of this side of the house is appropriated to the use of my slaves and freedmen; but most of the apartments, however, are neat enough to receive any of my friends. In the opposite wing is a room ornamented in very elegant taste; next to which lies another room, which, though large for a parlour, makes but a moderate dining-room......Beyond is a bed-chamber, together with its ante-chamber, the height of which renders it cool in summer, as its being sheltered on all sides from the winds, makes it warm in winter. To this apartment another of the same sort is joined by a common wall. From thence you enter into the grand and spacious cooling room belonging to the bath; from the opposite walls of which, two round basins project, sufficiently large to swim in." He then proceeds to enumerate the different bathing apartments. "At the other end," he continues, "is a second turret, in which is a room that receives the rising and setting sun. Behind this is a large repository, near to which is a gallery of curiosities; and underneath is a spacious dining-room, where the roaring of the sea, even in a storm, is heard but faintly. It looks upon the garden, and gestatio which surrounds the garden. The gestatio is encompassed with a box-tree hedge; and where that is decayed, with rosemary...... Between the garden and this gestatio runs a shady plantation of vines, the alley of which is so soft, that you may walk barefoot upon it without injury. The garden is chiefly planted with fig and mulberry trees, to which the soil is favourable, as it is averse to all others. In this place is a banqueting-room, which, though it stands remote from the sea, enjoys a prospect nothing inferior to that view. Two apartments run round the back of it, the windows whereof look upon the entrance of the villa, and into a very pleasant kitchen garden. From hence an inclosed portico extends, which, by its great length, you might suppose erected for the use of the public. It has a range of windows on each side; but on that which looks towards the sea, they are double the number of those next the garden. When the weather is fine and serene, these are all thrown open; but, if it blows, those on the side the wind sets are shut......Before this portico lies a terrace, perfumed with violets, and warmed by the reflection of the sun from the portico......On the upper end of the terrace and portico, stands a detached building in the garden, which I call my favourite; and indeed it is particularly so, having erected it myself. It contains a very warm winter room, one side of which looks upon the terrace, the other has a view of the sea, and both lie exposed to the sun. Through the folding doors, you see the opposite chamber, and from the windows is a prospect of the inclosed portico. On that side next the sea, and opposite to the middle wall, stands a little elegant recess, which, by means of glass doors and a curtain, is either laid open to the adjoining room, or separated from it. It contains a couch and two chairs......Adjoining to this is a bed-chamber, which neither the voice of the servants, the murmuring of the sea, nor even the roaring of a tempest, can reach; not lightning, nor day itself, can penetrate it, unless you open the windows. This profound tranquility is occasioned by a passage which separates the wall of the chamber from that of the garden; and thus by means of that intervening space, every noise is precluded. Annexed to this is a small stove-room, which, by opening a little window, warms the bed-chamber to the degree of heat required. Beyond this lies a chamber and ante-chamber, which enjoy the sun, though obliquely indeed, from the time it rises till the afternoon. When I retire to this garden apartment, I fancy myself a hundred miles from my own house, and take particular pleasure in it at the feast of the Saturnalia, when by the license of that season of festivity, every other part of my villa resounds with the mirth of my domestics: thus I neither interrupt their diversions, nor they my studies. Among the pleasures and conveniences of this situation, there is one disadvantage, and that is the want of a running stream; but this defect is in a great measure supplied by wells, or rather I should call them fountains, for they rise very near the surface."-A healthy situation, good water, and ready access to Rome, either by land or water, were considered indispensable requisites in selecting a site on which to build.

It must be remembered that the villa described by Pliny was merely a winter residence, and of modest proportions compared with those of the more wealthy patricians. Vitruvius says: "Those of the nobles who bear the honours of magistracy, and decide the affairs of the citizens, should have a princely vestibulum, lofty atrium, and ample peristylium, with groves and extensive

ambulatories, besides libraries and basilicæ, decorated in a manner similar to the magnificence of public buildings, for in these places both public affairs and private causes are oftentimes determined." The gestatio, described by Pliny, was a place for horse exercise; the box-trees by which it was bordered were frequently clipped into various forms, like those in an old-fashioned English garden. It was from this custom that the gardeners were called topiarii. The covered and inclosed portico was called crypto-porticus, and was intended for exercise in hot or wet weather; it was what we should call a gallery. A garden apartment devoted to retirement and study, was called a museum, from its being sacred to the muses. Besides the various farm buildings, orchard, kitchen garden, poultry yard, &c., necessary to an extensive country residence, there were belonging to these luxurious villas, warrens for hares and rabbits, and a park planted with forest trees, and containing fish-ponds, and abounding with game of every description. Varro mentions a piece of ground, fifty acres in extent, belonging to Quintus Hortensius, called a theriotrophium, which was devoted to the preservation of wild animals for the chase, such as deer and

boars.

The care of the apiary was considered of great importance, and Apicius enumerates snails and dormice as amongst the dishes pleasing to a Roman palate; both of these creatures had places set apart for their nourishment in the villa rustica. When we consider the numerous departments to be attended to, we are scarcely surprised when we hear of three or four hundred slaves being employed on one estate.

We now take our farewell of ancient Rome, with all its magnificence and luxury; and though we may condemn the want of pure taste and inordinate love of ornament, visible in many of the works of Roman architecture, they are at the same time so wonderful in their grandeur and beauty, that every race of architects of every age have approached them not only with admiration but with reverence, as a noble lesson in what the genius of man may achieve.

My next Lecture will be on the Foundation of Constantinople, and the first style of Christian architecture, known as Byzantine.

LIST OF AUTHORITIES.

Vitruvius. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire; Gibbon.-Encyclopedie Me thodique. Spalatro; Adam.-Sir J. G. Wilkinson's Dalmatia.-Essay on Roman Villas; Moule.-Pompeiana; Sir William Gell.-Villas of the Ancients; Castell.-Ornaments from Pompeii; Zahn.

APPLICATION OF HIGH ART TO PUBLIC SCULPTURE.

On the Application of High Art to Public Sculpture, and its relation to the wants of the People. By PATRIC PARK, of Edinburgh.

THE history of art is progression and retrogression. One bright era, the dynasty of Pericles and Phidias, in the sister arts of architecture and sculpture; another, the bright era of the Cinquecento, in painting, sculpture, and architecture; and a third, the era of the immortal Canova and Flaxman in the resurrection of sculpture in modern times-fill our minds from the works these ages have produced, with the positive knowledge that a lofty perception of the works of God and the high destinies of art were then apparent to artists and recognised by the world-a glorious blaze of sunshine, which seems to have put out the eyes of their successors, doomed to a mournful recognition of past splendour they felt themselves unequal to match or even to confront. Devoid of retrospective ambition, their estimate intellectually of the worth of preceding greatness in art is that which is stamped on the mind of the trader by its marketable and commercial value. No doubt in this the master is acknowledged; but, contemptible sons of great sires, they have lived but to exist on the renown of their fathers-forgetful that past glory forgotten or uncultivated, makes present imbecility a crime, not a misfortune.

Having premised that these remarks were necessary in order to introduce the topic he wished to bring before the public attention -that of recalling to practice a standard in high art, the lecturer proceeded to state, as the principle he wished to enforce, that the use of the nudo is the only means by which certain characteristics in man can be illustrated; and that in combination with it, drapery, from its form and infinite variety, is an adjutant principle of scarcely secondary importance in its appeal to human perception, and this not as robes made after a fashion which have their own individual significance, but as a simple covering, taking its immediate style from the genius of the artist, the necessity of the case, and the character of the subject. We advocate these principles