jection than on the front-they project nearly half their diameter; | the two columns on each side the arch stand on a continuous pedestal. The opening of the archway is an exact square to the springing of the archivolt; the entablature is one-fourth the height of the column, and the attic nearly half the height of the order. The whole is constructed of large blocks of Parian marble; one of the stones of the cornice is 10 feet in length; the architrave and frieze are in one block in height; the arch is composed of eleven voussoirs; the blocks were originally fastened by metal cramps, most of which have been removed. The archway is adorned with bas-reliefs, representing the conquests of Titus in the East; one of these is particularly interesting, the subject being the sacred utensils, candelabra, &c., belonging to the Temple at Jerusalem, borne in procession at the Triumph of Titus.

The arches of Septimus Severus and Constantine, consist of three openings, the central one being the largest; they present a similar façade on each front, having four detached columns, backed by pilasters resting on the same pedestals as the columns.

In the Arch of Septimus Severus, the arches communicate with each other by cross openings. The detached columns have been objected to, as having nothing to support, and therefore being useless; the two inner ones are not even surmounted by pilasters on the attic. The statues placed on the entablature remove this objection in the Arch of Constantine. The Arch of Septimus Severus is of the Composite order, and is 76 ft. 4 in. in height, by 68 ft. 2 in. in breadth; the columns are ten diameters in height. The openings are lofty; the centre one being nearly, and the side ones quite, double their width up to the springing of the arch. It is richly decorated with bas-reliefs, and had formerly a triumphal car on the summit, with statues of the emperor and his two sons.

The Arch of Constantine is made up of parts carried away from other structures, which the architect has not even known how to apply properly. No artist was found in Rome capable of executing the bas-reliefs;. they were therefore most inappropriately borrowed from the Arch of Trajan, the subjects setting forth the conquests of the latter emperor, instead of those of Constantine. The structure altogether presents a curious mixture of two different periods, and of the best and worst taste. Amongst other incongruities it may be remarked, that the cornice of the impost has both dentel band and modillions, while that of the entablature has modillions without the denticulus.

Besides the Triumphal Arches, properly so called, there are many, either simply commemorative of some person or event, or serving as ornamental gates to a city: such are the arches of Gallien at Rome, of Hadrian at Athens, and of Trajan at Ancona. Speaking of the Arch at Trajan, Serlio says, "those who understand art, are not only delighted with the admirable intelligence shown in its construction, but render thanks to the architect for having produced a work by which our age may be instructed, and may discover the rules of the beautiful." This arch is small, being only 9 ft. 10 in. in width, but lofty; it is more than twice its width to the springing of the arch. On each front are four Corinthian columns; it is erected on a basement; a bust of the emperor is sculptured on the keystone; and the spandrils and walls between the columns were formerly decorated with bronze ornaments. It was built 116 A.D.

We have now passed in review the principal public buildings of the Romans; and in the next Lecture, I propose to inquire into the Domestic Architecture of this great people, though comparatively little is known on this subject, owing to the few remains.

LIST OF AUTHORITIES.

Vitruvius-Decline and fall of the Roman Empire; Gibbon-Architectural Antiquities of Rome; Taylor and Cresy-Les edifices antiques de Rome; Desgodetz--Architettura; Palladio-Architettura; Serlio-Encyclopedie Methodique-Ancient and Modern Archi tecture; Gailhabaud-Fabbriche antiche di Roma; Cipriani-Verona Illustrata; MaffeiAntiquités de Nismes; Clerisseau-Baths of Titus; Ponce.

lecture-hall and galleries. The elevation, it will be seen, is terminated by a cornice, with projecting brackets and eaves roof. There are three windows in the width, and the middle one on each floor has three openings. On the ground-floor this centre window has its openings formed by two Doric columns, the shafts of which are rusticated, in correspondence with the quoins forming the dressings of the side openings, and of the two other windows. The cornices and consoles of the lower part of the middle range of windows support the balconies and balustrades of the upper range. In the upper range, the middle window is converted into an arched Venetian window, with the central opening of which the windowhead on either side corresponds, having a richly-moulded archhead and ornamented keystone. The dressings are of Portland stone, and the rest of the work of limestone rubble, faced with Portland cement.

The interior contains upon the ground-floor a library, 60 feet in length by 15 feet in height, and which may be converted into three rooms, connected by two large open arches. The end or side divisions only are for books, the middle one being used as a museum. On the ground-floor are likewise a class-room and some officers' rooms. The upper floor is occupied by the great lecturehall, 61 feet by 46 feet, and 30 feet high, lighted by a double range of windows. In the hall are likewise galleries. The ceiling is divided into compartments by carved beams, and the walling is finished with an enriched frieze, cornice, and cove. One large central ventilator, and two smaller ventilators, are made ornamental. The building was finished in the spring of this year, and the whole cost was about 25001.

DEVONPORT MECHANICS' INSTITUTE.

THE great town of Plymouth, Devonport, and Stonehouse, is well supplied by the liberality of its inhabitants with libraries and institutions. We lately described an institution at Plymouth, and we now bring before our readers the design for the extension of the Devonport Mechanics' Institute, carried out under the direction of Mr. Alfred Norman, architect, practising in the town.

The engraving shows the front towards Duke-street, which, on the ground-floor, is surmounted by an entablature of the Doric order, and is constructed of Portland stone. Above this groundfloor are two rows of windows, the lower being smaller, and a kind of base to the upper row. They are designed to give light to the

NEW-HALL

ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE.

A few Remarks on some of the leading points of Romanesque Architecture. By JAMES EDMESTON, jun. (Paper read at the general meeting of the Architectural Association, Lyon's-inn Hall, 18th October, 1850.

Ir has not been by any means the chief aim in the subsequent remarks, to enter into an historical or antiquarian account of the rise and development of those architectural forms exhibited in the early ecclesiastical architecture of Italy, and which usually pass under the name of Romanesque, any further than is necessary for the sake of distinction and elucidation. It is, on the contrary, I believe, often desirable to escape as much as may be from all influences which are not to be found in the art itself; to think upon, and to view it for instruction and guidance, as architectural students; believing that such inquiries as we have alluded to, too minutely followed out, are more proper to the antiquarian than the architect, and that they too often, to the great loss of the student, carry away the imagination, and blind the vision to those real and lively principles of the art which ought first to claim his attention. It is, nevertheless, necessary to trace the development of succeeding forms and arrangements-their origin and progress; because, in tracing the growth of the first rude attempts to the latest perfection, the architect learns to understand the inferior stages of development, and wins his way to the better starting point for his own exertions, sees that progress and onward movement is the very soul and life of his art, and receives by the study a mental discipline and correction that trains his own mind for vigorous exertion, and helps him to throw aside fearlessly the trammels of conventionalism and fashion.

It has always seemed to me that the study of those architectural efforts called Romanesque is, to all these ends, useful and well fitted; it is simple and vigorous, determinate and striking; bold in its effects; with all its simplicity, very often artist like; often mistaken, yet the production of no paltry and flimsy tone of mind, but the solid expression of real wants, deeply felt and fervently put forth.

It is again an especially interesting study if it is allowed-as to me it appears that it should be-that it shares with the Byzantine the parentage of all the later styles, Christian and Mahommedan: and without staying for one moment to inquire into the vexed question as to whence the Pointed arch arose to work its mission of revolution in the architectural world, I will claim this fact for the Romanesque, that it was through it that society, under its much changed and altered conditions, shook off those chains that bound the art to Classic models; and that it adds one more bold unanswerable witness of the fact, that progress is the life-blood of architecture; for that age-glowing freshly with the first benign influences of Christianity, and daring to throw aside the beautiful forms presented by the Pagan world-thinking and acting for itself, led the way to those delightful creations of the later Gothic school; and has thus earned the respect of all subsequent ages, and deserves well of all lovers of architecture; well merits the student's careful attention, and cannot fail to reward him plentifully for the industry he may bestow.

Lest any one should think, by the passing allusion above to the pointed arch, that I suppose it invented by Romanesque architects, 1 will simply record my belief that, like the circular arch, it was known, and occasionally by chance was used, much earlier; that the Arabian architects used it first as a general feature, but that for the Gothic architects was left the enviable task of evolving the true principles which it contained-of working it out and bringing it to its highest perfection.

In passing, I cannot help observing the great advantages which architects of these later times have over their fathers; the architectural expressions and knowledge of cycle on cycle of the world's efforts in the art, is laid before them for their instruction by innumerable careful and talented works on the several subjects; and the architect, in a few years, and in his own studio, may learn more than he could formerly have learnt in as many lifetimes. Oh! surely these advantages should never be abused to the stultifying and annihilating of his own intellect and genius; but ought, on the other hand, to be so many powerful incentives to his fresh exertions nourishment to strengthen his imagination for renewed efforts-beacons to show him the rocks to be avoided in his course -pinnacles of ambition which he may reach, and from which he may see a yet unattained world of beauty beyond.

By Romanesque, then, I understand that style of architecture which was used after the decline of Roman power, and the removal

of the seat of government to Byzantium; and which continued until the use (I will not say the discovery, but until the use) of the pointed arch led the way to the entire change in Christian architecture-till what we call Gothic became prevalent in Italy, and long after it was generally used in other countries; extending, as to time, therefore, from the middle of the fourth even to the thirteenth century, for Pointed architecture obtained no certain footing in Italy till after that time. The locality in which this style prevailed was confined to Italy-that is, North Italy and Lombardy, and is very distinct from that architecture very properly called Byzantine, which was the work of Greek architects, of a much more oriental character, and with many distinctive marks; having, in fact, Greek architecture for its basis, as Romanesque had Roman on the one side, and the early German Gothicwhich, in many respects, appears akin, but is nevertheless very different on the other. The distinctions between the churches in this style are chiefly between those built at and near Rome-which was for ages a great quarry, from which were taken not merely stones, but parts of buildings, columns, cornices, &c., to be worked up whcle into other buildings (and they therefore partook more of the old classic models)-and those Lombard edifices, and others, at a distance from such assistance, and which are therefore more defined in style, and give clearer evidence of a step or two towards the Gothic.

First, then, let us consider the plans of buildings in this style: the earlier ones are found in the great majority-perhaps in all cases where Pagan architecture was employed-to be exactly that of the ancient Basilica, or hall of justice; that is, a parallelogram, or nearly a double square, with the semicircular or octagonal recess at one end, usually called the apsis-in the court-house, the judge's seat; but in the church, the sacred place where the altar was placed, and round which sat the bishops and presbyters. In some examples the atrium adjoining was retained, as at San Clemente near Rome, and San Ambrogio at Milan; and which, in appearance at all events, would appear to bear some analogy to the more modern cloisters. In some of the later edifices we observe the transeptal arms broken out, as in a Gothic cathedral; but by far the most usual is the simple Latin plan-though we do, in some instances, see some examples of the Greek cross; but these must, in all cases, be put down as the work of Greek architects, for the Latin architects never altered the more ancient form to which they were accustomed. And I think, beyond all question, this simple plan, so much preferred by the early Christian church, may be traced through the Romanesque to the Gothic; and that there can be no doubt but that it was the excellent basis which lies at the root of all the variations which that style engrafted upon it. This form of plan was used by the early Christians, doubtless, because in many cases they found it ready presented before them in the already existing basilicas, which they easily converted into churches; and secondly, because its simplicity was admirably adapted to their wants-the central nave and two side aisles: the northern assigned to the women, the southern to the men; the centre occupied by the choir and sub-deacons, then by the neophytes and candidates for baptism; and lastly, near the door, by the penitents.

True, we find this simple plan extended and added to subsequently, though always preserved as the main principle of arrangement, particularly in the neighbourhood of Rome; and those alterations which did take place, as the addition of transepts, &c., are much the most usual in Lombardy. The single apsis was never forgotten; but others were added at the end of the aisles, then to the transepts; and as the fashion of building chapels to tutelary saints became more in vogue, they were even broken out laterally. In all the earlier instances the floor was level, except only two or three steps to the apsis, where the high altar was situated; but as the prejudice against burial within the consecrated walls died away, and as the Church began to build for itself, we find the introduction of a new feature in the plan, and which is treated with the utmost importance-the crypt, which in these edifices appears not as a place of sepulture, but as a sort of lower church, complete with its altars and shrines; supposed by some to have been erected in imitation of the catacombs-those early places of meeting, in which the early Christians were wont to hide themselves, and to carry on their simple but sincere worship. Whether this be a mere fanciful supposition or not, what we know is, that they were prepared for the reception of the bodies of confessors and martyrs; and as such were treated with as much care and attention as the rest of the church-not sunk into the earth, but often nearly on a level with the floor of the nave, and with a number of steps ascending to the choir above (which had then been removed from its first position in the nave), just as we see it

at Canterbury: it is thus at San Miniato at Florence, and at San Flaviano near Montefiascone, where there is a complete lower as well as upper church; at San Francesco at Assisi, where the great St. Francis was entombed; at San Zenone at Verona, and many other places.

This custom of building crypts and subterranean chapels was continued in the architecture of our own country until the last half of the eleventh century, but probably not much later.*

Considering these churches in section, we find in the earliest examples, arches springing from the capitals of the columns between the nave and aisles, and carrying a clerestory; the roofs in all cases of low pitch, of wood, with level tie-beams; the trusses near together, and the aisle-roof generally of less pitch than that over the nave, just as we usually see it in our own parish churches. The flank walls at first flat, till in the church of Santa Maria at Toscanella, erected in the seventh century, we find them relieved by piers and arches projecting from the face, and as if forming recesses in the wall ready for ribs and cross springers, but with the groins left unexecuted. In the church of St. Agnes near Rome, built a little later, we have another step in advance, for the clerestory is raised higher, the aisles are groined, and over them are galleries, with a second series of columns and arches over the nave columns, with a balustrade between, forming excellent and spacious galleries; being an arrangement in this style precisely similar to that of our own cathedrals with their triforia. The aisles, although groined under the galleries, are, with the rest of the church, roofed above with wood, which again reminds us of a practice usually followed by the Gothic architects. These galleries, most probably, were for the use of the women, as the triforia have been conjectured to have been used by the nuns. In the Cathedral of Pisa, built in the latter part of the eleventh and beginning of the twelfth century, we find this arrangement magnificently treated, and with a still nearer approach to the Gothic treatment, for the piers are carried through and within the larger arches; springing from one pier to the other, are again two smaller arches, with a column in the centre. The proportions of this cathedral are noble and lofty, the galleries spacious and most effective features. The aisles are double, divided with a range of columns down the centre; they are groined, but the roof is of wood, as in the former examples: and here we find very successfully introduced the alternate courses of red and white marble, a fashion just then obtaining-here confined to a cross in the spandril between the nave arches, and to the striping of the clerestory and projecting ribs of the groining. The good taste of this practice is much questioned; but it has certainly here received the sanction of a masterly mind, for such must have been the architect of this cathedral. It seems to me, that care bestowed in arranging the different materials in a building as to colour, is admissable, and capable of adding much to the good effect-though much overdone in some of these examples.

It can hardly be well used over the whole of a large building-it is much better confined to parts which can be easily taken into view at once, and is, I think, particularly applicable to circular work of any kind. There is a great defect to be remarked in the groining of the aisles in this cathedral, inasmuch as the springing is considerably above the cap of the central columns, so that there is first of all a sort of pier above the cap, which gives an appearance of great weakness; but even at this later period, we find the earliest model was not entirely deserted, for at San Zenone in Verona, built in the twelfth century, there is no triforium or gallery; but a magnificent effect is got by the well-proportioned simplicity of the design, and by the alternate piers and columns between the nave and aisles. In this church, alternate layers of marble and brick are used.

In the Cathedral of San Francesco at Assisi, erected in the thirteenth century, built by a German architect, we find the first example of any importance of the introduction of the pointed arch in Italy, From this time it became always used, with more or less mixture of the now declining Romanesque; the effect of which is particularly evident in the fine Cathedral of Sienna; in which we have the pointed arch with the mixture of Classic details, cornices, consoles, capitals, &c., the walls being composed of layers of white and black marble.

The whole of the interiors of these churches were lavishly decorated with fresco, mosaics, &c. A great difference is, however, observable between the style of decoration which was followed in the Lombard churches of Northern Italy, and those nearer Rome. The former are remarkable for great stiffness of * In the discussion which tollowed, St. Leonard's, York, a church at Madley, Herefordshire, and Hereford Cathedral, were mentioned as baving crypts of a later date.

design, very gross imagery, grotesque carvings and ornaments, all crowded and huddled together, the foliages bearing some analogy to our own early Norman, and by no means equal to the Byzantine of the same date. The latter are much better in arrangement and drawing; their excellence, however, is only comparative.

In the earlier Romanesque churches, the exterior effect would seem to have been deemed of an importance altogether secondary to that of the interior, presenting often little else than bare walls, with few and ill-arranged openings. After a while, however, we find these made more important, and the exterior walling broken into piers and recesses, particularly the apsides, which were decorated with long narrow three-quarter columns running up to the eaves. But a much more decided attempt to gain an effect is made by the introduction of arcades or passage-ways in the thickness of the wall, particularly round the apsides, immediately beneath the eaves, as if for a passage-way from one gallery to another, without the necessity of entering the body of the church. This is the case with two of the churches at Pavia, San Frediano at Lucca, a church at Arezzo, &c. The Cathedral of Pisa has an arcaded facciata of no less than four tiers, as also has San Michele at Lucca, and Santa Maria at Arezzo. These arcades might, perhaps, have been used as a sort of cloisters, though hardly very much retired; and, from their elevated and commanding situation, much more calculated to enliven and delight him who walked therein, than to lead his mind to those quiet and abstract contemplations which would be more congenial and suitable.

If not for some practical purpose of this kind, I am unable to determine what may have been the use of this oft-repeated feature; where sparingly used in the towers and apsides it is very effective, but in some of the examples above cited, it would appear to be overdone-to be made too distinctive, so that the outer wall is made nothing less than a screen to an inner one; whereas, if treated as part of the external wall, the relief thereby given to it, and the solid effect, the depths of shade, and points of bright light, conspire together to assist the effect of the whole very advantageously.

In the façade of San Pietro at Spoleto, we have an instance of a style which has been very aptly called the "Cabinet Style," a style which I think has never wholly become obsolete, but is occasionally followed even in this day. It may be called the climax of un-architectural effect. Bad proportions, bad arrangements, and bad construction, are all, of course, un-architectural; but still a building, with all these faults, may have more of the architect about it than a building in the style now alluded to. It may have what this style really wants-some leading idea and purpose, some fine and poetic notion, even let the result fall never so far short of the achievement it proposed to reach. Here we find a nearly equal surface for the façade, with certain square lines ruled upon it across each other, so as to form the most prim and severe-looking panels; in them are set certain circular windows, doors where needed, and surrounded by a profusion of laboured ornament and decoration; each part utterly discordant with the rest, and the whole very ingenious, but telling most significantly of efforts painfully abortive, as far as regarded anything good in the ultimate effect, being after a manner which would be much more suitable to the inlaying of a work-table, or any other similar piece of furniture, than for a work of art of a nature so much more exalted as Architecture. And the architect who neglects truthfulness, who seeks to hide construction, who fears too much to show the anatomy, so to speak, of his design, is in great danger of falling into such a style as this.

What, then, beyond the mere appreciation of detail and general arrangement-or vice versa, the lessons to be learnt from bad detail and arrangement-is the profit to be gained from the careful study of the architecture of that period and country now under consideration? The study of detail is useful; but far more important is it that the student should seek for principles-the principles which lie at the root of all the details and forms which outwardly appear as the results of those principles; growing upon them, and the whole succeeding or failing, as the first basis is justly founded or not.

Now, in this style we observe the transition from the Classic to the architecture known as Gothic-that is, from a mode of treatment the whole life and soul of which is contained in the successful application of lengthened horizontal lines, and of figures bounded by such parallel lines, to another mode of treatment whose very essence is contained in the like use of lengthened vertical lines, and of figures bounded by such lines. This being a style of transition-for the Classical treatment was wholly unsettled by the use to which the circular arch was put in this style, and as

yet the great principles contained in the pointed arch lay dormant, we find a mixture of the two principles; and to this we may attribute that unsuccessful and unsatisfactory effect which, notwithstanding the good points we have been able to allude to, generally marks the style: and it is well worth the trouble of a patient study, if we may demonstrate from these examples that any conjunction of these two principles, so perfect in themselves when kept apart, cannot succeed-that they will not assimilate.

In these times, when, happily, there is a desire and purpose abroad to escape from copyism, and attempts at positive re-production, it is of the utmost importance to determine what may and what may not be attempted with a fair chance of success; and in the study of earlier styles to this end lies the great advantage— of consequence infinitely greater than the minute differences in the contour of a set of mouldings or the style of foliage, decoration, or indeed anything else subordinate to the great radical principles which must lie at the bottom of the superstructure of ideas, even though, perhaps in great part unsuspected by those who set up the edifice of mind and taste.

In all the earlier history of Architecture, in all countries and in all ages, we find that it is the natural offspring of the social condition, circumstances, and bias of each nation, and the strong expression of those feelings and tendencies which had most weight and were the most prominent features in the national character. Nothing, indeed, could be more natural than that it should be so; for whether a nation would express the glowing fervour of religious enthusiasm, or the towering pride of warlike ambition; whether the voluptuous luxury of careless ease and inaction or the chaste and pure breathings of a lofty philosophy and elevated poetry-to what can it fly more suitable to express and show clearly to the world such marks and features? to what, in the range of art, so capable as Architecture to bear such impressions, and to proclaim them intelligibly to all beholders? Thus was it in Egypt and Greece. Had the social state of the Greeks been less highly polished and refined, their intellectual culture less, and their religious feeling more, should we have had their architecture? Had the fervid and enthusiastic, yet seclusive and predestinating, religion of Mahomet found no followers, should we have had the quaint but poetical Moresque? Or, turning to the delightful and refreshing picture of medieval art, from whence should we derive its peculiar and individual expression but from the pure and holy standard of the Christian religion? the whole overflowing with a loftiness and aspiration of idea which was never previously seenwas never called into existence-simply, because then, for the first time, had those particular stimulating necessities arisen; the fountain of thought then bubbled up from another region, flowed down from a different source, and nourished a different landscape into beauty and loveliness.

The characteristics of this age in our own country, in a secular point of view, are the luxuriousness and magnificence produced by the influx and accumulation of increasing wealth in individuals and noble houses; a rapid spread of invention and scientific discovery; great and increasing national power and resources; a peaceful industry and love of peaceful arts, but an energetic resistance of all aggression; a great pride of country and love of home; and desire for national pre-eminence, to be gained rather by solid institutions and sound government than by force of arms or political intrigue and chicanery. If Architecture, then, had been allowed to have the guidance of its own natural laws of progression, it might be perhaps supposed, with some show of reason, that a national style would have grown into strength and beauty; which, preserving the treatment peculiar to the medieval styles, would yet have been influenced by the refinement of the Greek, tinctured to some extent with the ornamental profusion of the Roman: a style bold and massive, resting for its effects upon solid proportions rather than upon detail-most likely with a leaning towards the pier and arch treatment rather than to the columnar; different from all that had come before, and as English as our ships, our laws, or ourselves.

Yet, should such a thing ever come to pass by the lesson before us, we see that it never could be done by any incongruous mixture of old examples and styles. What we must look for to realise any great change is some new principle-some great main idea; and should such be discovered, then, without difficulty or effort, we should have a new and national style. Till then we may rest assured that the great principles already known to us admit of many applications different from those that have already appeared, and which will doubtless reward a patient investigation. And we shall do well to abstain, not merely from copying, but from gaining originality by any clashing mixture of old styles: the result may

very possibly be quaint, perhaps with some merit; but could never become a style, and never be beautiful, because always imperfect.

I think we may also receive some instruction relative to that which is an important consideration in modern church architecture-namely, how to introduce galleries.

It is very generally conceded that in our crowded cities, it is impossible to keep galleries out of our churches; and, indeed, I know not why it should be thought desirable to do so, for in a Protestant church, where hearing quite as much as seeing is the requisite, it is a ready means of bringing a great additional number within the required distance. I believe, if treated as a mere piece of cumbrous furniture, a mere stage put up without connection or any harmony with the rest of the building, that it must always be wholly unsuc cessful and unarchitectural. If, however, treated as in some of these churches (St. Agnes, for example), there is no such objectionno such fault to find. In a Gothic church, put-as we usually see it-where it ought not to be, it is obtrusive and unpleasant. In a church of Classic design-as we usually see it-it has the appearance of an inharmonious erection in a disproportioned room. But only let it be above the arches between the aisles and nave; only let the lines of the nave be continued up to the roof, the gallery not interfering with it-and the whole is compact and proportionate The beauty of the Basilica plan, whether applied Gothically or Classically, is the just proportion between the aisles and navethe unbroken height of the lengthened vistas, and the effect, is wholly lost if all be thrown open together on the one hand, or choked-up with carpenter-like contrivances on the other.

I doubt not, with a little care, galleries might assist the general effect, instead of the contrary, as at present; and still retain their acknowledged qualities of usefulness and saving in expense.

MR. STEPHENSON AT BERNE.

THE Swiss Federal Council have certainly pitched upon the best expedient for settling the important question of their system of railways, by calling Mr. Stephenson to a sort of professional consultation. Mr. Stephenson, accompanied by his assistant, Mr. Swinburn, had the whole mass of plans, sections, and estimates laid before him, as well as statistical tables relating to population, the amount of traffic, &c. The English engineers, accompanied by M. Councillor Näff, have also made a tour of inspection through the east and middle of Switzerland, and are about to proceed to the new projected lines of the west. As far as the opinions expressed by Mr. Stephenson have become known, they are as follow. He does not think it advisable to cover the whole of Switzerland at once with a network of rail, but to beg n rather with a few central lines, which would bisect the land from east to west, and north to south. These are to be undertaken by the federal government, while the branch lines, which have subsequently to connect those main arteries, are to be executed by the single republics (cantons).

Mr. Stephenson has been gratified by the geological fact, that in the direction contemplated (that of the equator and the meridian), the longitudinal stream valleys of the Alps are favourable to the project, whose rise and fall do in no case exceed 1 in 100.

In a financial point of view, it is Mr. Stephenson's opinion, that the less capital employed, the greater the dividends are likely to be. He proposes, therefore, only single lines of rail; with the avoiding of costly tunnels, viaducts, cuttings, &c., and the accommodation of the line to the most adapted terrain of valleys and the slopes of hills. Further surveys have been made at Hauenstein, according to which inclined planes and compensation engines are to be put in operation at Laüfelfingen and Trimbach, and the tunnel of 2500 yards in length, projected by M. Merian, is to be finally executed.

It has not, however, been Switzerland alone which has honoured, on this occasion, the English engineer with particular confidence: the King of Sardinia has also commissioned M. Negrelli to meet Mr. Stephenson, for the purpose of consulting with him on the projected new lines over the Alburn, the Grimsel, and the Brüning. Mr. Stephenson seems, however, to be altogether averse to the idea of the gigantic tunnel-if anything can be called gigantic because it is impossible. Even the Lukmanier tunnel of 17,000 feet, seems to him an adventurous undertaking, and he prefers the passing of the mountain at St. Maria by means of compensating engines and covered galleries. It is, therefore, easy to foresee what Mr. Stephenson will say to a project. by which the passage from Domo d'Ossola into the Valais is to be effected by a tunnel of one-quarter of a league; that of the Grimsel by one of half-a-league; and the Brüning by one also of one-fourth league in length. L.