བཞིན་དུ་ ,according to that, like that, thus, so་; སྔ་མ་བཞིན་དུ་

,as formerly, as before'; instead of it the dialect of WT

uses

, generally with the Genitive, thus the last

example there would be: སྔན་མའི་ནང་ལྟར་.

ལྟར་ ,likeé, རི་ལྟར་ ,like a hill'; འདི་ལྟར་, དེ་ལྟར་ ,like

ཅི་ལྟར་, CT: གང་ལྟར་

what?

this, like that, thus, so, , CT: ',like what?

how? in what manner?".

In the dialect of WT མཚོགས་ or མཚོགས་སེ་ is used

instead (which is a corruption of

, occurring in

books with the same meaning): thus, '‚ like

same meaning): thus, རི་མཚེགས་སེ་ ,like a hill‘; འདི་མཚོགས་, དེ་མཚོགས་ ,thus'; or ཟུག་ (properly ཙུག་), ཨི་ཟུག་, ཨ་ཟུག་ ,thus་, ག་ཟུག་ ,how?“.

Chapter IX.

The Conjunction.

44. The written language possesses very few, the spoken still fewer, Conjunctions, most of which are coordinative. The common word for,and is 55′ which we have

seen above in the sense of ,with་, གསེར་དང་། དངུལ་དང་། ལྕགས་ལ་སོགས་པ་ ,gold and silver and iron and collection

(i. e. and so on)', though the position of the sad (10.) after the word 55 shows that it is always considered as belonging to the preceding member of the sentence, similar, in

this respect, to the Latin que'; nor can it in any case begin a sentence. Very seldom, and only in later literature, it appears as combining two verbs, if not, indeed, the root ought to be regarded there as abbreviation for the infinitive. Further: ',also, too'. When belonging to a single word or notion it is put after it in an enclitical way like ,quoque' in Latin. It is changed according to the termination of the preceding word, into after

ཀྱང་

ས་*), into འང་ often after vowels (cf. 6).

ག་ ད་ བ་

Thus: བུ་ཞིག་

taking also a son (with him)'. When repeated,

it has the signification of Latin,et— et,

||,both mother and son died'. Often, especially

55

not even one'. This is the

in negative sentences, it means ‚even, ,even one (they) did not find only means for expressing,none, no, nothing, Ny (or གང་) ཡང་མ་འོངས་ (resp. ཡོངས་) ,nobody came'; དེ་ན་ཅི་ ཡང་(ཅིའང་, or ),there is nothing' (cf. 29). When combined with verbs, བཙལ་ཡང་མ་རྙེད་དོ་ ,even searching

(they) did not find', it serves as another expression for ,though' or also,but' (s. 41. A.7.b): thus,,though they searched, they etc. or ,they searched, but they etc.'. Standing

*) This is not very carefully observed even in good mscr. and prints, where will occur sometimes after

after the other consonants and even after vowels.

etc., and ཀྱང་

76

44. Conjunction. 45. Interjection.

for itself (not leaning on the preceding word) it means. ,again, once more' (when it is to be regarded as adverb),

དེར་ཡང་འཁམས་ནས་ ,there (I) fainting once more etc..

In the beginning of a sentence it is,and, again, moreover, and may occasionally be rendered by ,however, but'. ཡང་ན་, ,or“; repeated, ཨང་ན་་་་ ཡང་ན་ ་ ་ ་ ,either— or—་. -,Or' is expressed also by the interrogative affix of the

,a

finite verb (34. 1.), འམ་ etc., གསེར་དངུལ་འམ། ཟངས་ ‚a bottle of gold, silver, or copper'. — Kos འོན་ཀྱང་ ‚nevertheless, but', vulg: WTC occurs much less frequently in Tibetan than in the European languages.

The only Subordinate Conjunctions are: 1.

, if, introducing conditional sentences ending in ♂ (40. 1. A.4). But, as the conditional force really rests on the closing , the initial may be put or omitted at pleasure; 2.

ཅི་སྟེ་ ,batif ; གལ་ཏེ་ནུས་ན་་་ if I can..., ཅི་སྟེ་མི་ནུས་ན་

,but if not...; this last is found only in books.

Chapter X.

The Interjection.

45. The most common Interjection is, or, repeat

ed,,oh!, alas! used also before the Vocative. The

language of common life uses instead: Hwa, or ལྦའི་ ཨཿཝཾ.

Chapter XI.

Derivation.

46. Derivation of Substantives. As most of what belongs under this head has already been mentioned in 11. and 12. only the formation of abstract nouns remains to be spoken of. 1. The unaltered adjective may be used as an abstract noun, especially with the article བ་, as: གྲང་བ་དྲོ་བར་

,the cold is changed into warmth. To this may

be added the pronoun ཉིད་ (གྲང་བ་ཉིད་ ,ipsum frigidum);

but this is used scarcely anywhere else than in metaphysical treatises, from whence a few expressions, such as the vacuum, the absolute rest in deliverance

སྟོང་པ་ཉིད་ ,the

from existence have become more generally known. 2. In the case of two correlative ideas existing, frequently

the compound of both is used, esp. in common talk,

„size“ (lit.,large and small),

thickness' (,thick and

thin'), e.g. ''''',the size as much as a mustard-seed'. 3. 5,difference' (or, sometimes, 5,

ཚོད་ ,measure') is added, མཐོ་ཁྱད་,height་, ཕྱུག་ཁྱད་ ,wealth,

riches'. 4. Mental qualities are in most cases paraphrased

by སེམས་, or བྲོ་ with a བློ་ with a genitive, བཟོད་པའི་སེམས་ ,mind

of suffering, enduring, i.e. patience,

wise

mind, wisdom, skill; 5 ́Ñ‚mind of rejoicing,

joy་ (vulg: སེམས་དགའ་མོ་), དད་པའི་སེམས་,mind of belief

(also a believing mind'), faith'. 5. Diminutives are formed by adding the termination, often with an alteration of the preceding vowel: 5,horse',,little horse,

foal'; མི་ ,man', མིའུ་ ,little man, dwarf; རྡོ་ ,stone་, རྡེའུ་

,small stone, calculus'. If a word ends with a consonant, only u is added, and a new syllable formed:

ལུ་གུ་ ,lamb.

sheep',

or the

47. Derivation of Adjectives. 1. Possessive adjectives are regularly expressed by adding the syllable, phrase, abridged to any substantive, མགོ་ ཅན་ ,having a head‘; མི་མགོ་ཅན་ having the head of a man'; སྐྲ་ཅན་ ,having hair, (long-) hairedí; རིག་པ་ཅན་, རིག་པ་ དང་ལྡན་པ་ ,possessing knowledge, learned, wise'; དང་ལྡན་

is never heard in common talk in WT. 2. Adjectives of appurtenance are generally expressed by the genitive of

the substantive, གསེར་གྱི་ ,of gold, golden'; ཤའི་མིག་ ,the eye of flesh, the carnal, bodily eye', oppos.:

,the eye of knowledge, spiritual eye‘.

3. Negative, or

privative adjectives are formed in several ways: a) by the simple negative མིི་, མི་འོས་པ་ ,unworthy་; མི་རུང་བ་ ,unfit'; '¿‚unheard of. b) by adding

without“