Saxon as a circumstance natural to the story, and slave though she is, she is called freolecu.' Again, consciousness of beauty unites with the desire for perfect freedom in inspiring Satan's rebellion. On the whole, it seems probable that the sense of beauty, like the more tender emotions, developed under the influence of Christianity and reacted on the scriptural material treated. The suggestion is, however, offered with the utmost caution, for here the possibility of conventional phraseology is not balanced by definite knowledge of recognized Teutonic tendencies. The conventional tendency would be stimulated by such alliterative phrases as freolecu faemne, wifa wlitegost; but the variation in the terms used (e. g., in the passages on Eve and Sarai referred to above) shows that this is only a subsidiary cause, and that (by Liliencron's theory, see p. 11, note 2) the idea of beauty is not unimportant. In any case, the development of a conventional phrase implies a nucleus of ideal. "Fair" becomes a stock epithet in mediæval romance; but it is because beauty was the first qualification of a heroine.

3

Physical beauty, like light, is associated with goodness in very many religions and mythologies; and here again the Anglo-Saxon poetry emphasizes the element common to Latin Christianity and Teutonic paganism. Thus the change, after the fall, in Satan, so gloriously beautiful and bright in heaven, is seized upon; and the change of the angels to devils. At the Judgment Day womma leas and whitig are used by Christ as associated terms; so the blessed shine gloriously, while each of the damned, swart with sin,'

won and wliteleas, hafað werzes bleo,
facentacen feores.

Again, Andreas is sigeltorht; while the devil who causes the attack on him

wann and wliteleas hæfde werizes hiw.9

A dark appearance characterizes the devils also in Christ, ll. 269, 1523, 1561.

The appearances of the trees of life and of the knowledge of good and evil are similarly contrasted:

Oder was swa wynlic, wlitiz and scene,
lide and lofsum: pæet wæs lifes beam;'
þonne was se oder eallenza sweart,

dim and pystre: þat was deades beam.2

It is difficult to mark the point of transition to metaphor in many slightly varying phrases which speak of the "stain" or "rust" of sin on the soul; of its "beauty" through good deeds; and of good deeds themselves "shining."

7

circumcidere,ircumo'

It is to be noticed that modifications and additions occur especially in points of detail. Even where the outline is transferred unchanged, the details added by the poet are naturally Teutonic in character. Customs unknown to him are ignored. In the Vulgate, when circumcision is mentioned, the phrase specifies the nature of the operation-carnem praeputii circumcidere, mer or sometimes simply circumcidere.' The Anglo-Saxon paraphrase uses vague general phrases-sigores tacn, fridotacen, torht tacn, beacen. Similarly the change of names of Abram and Sarai, possessing no significance for the Anglo-Saxon, is ignored, Abraham and Sarah being used throughout. On the other hand, slight modifications constantly occur, not only in the representation of persons and conceptions, but in incidental detail, giving characteristic tone even when the paraphrase follows the main outline closely. Thus the importance of relationship is felt in the accuracy of the paraphrase, where instead of the loose fratres of the Vulgate Abraham reminds LotIc eom fædera pin

sibžebyrdum, þu min suhterza.

The strife of the herdsmen of Abraham and Lot is nationalized. The significance of "foes all round"-mentioned only casually in the Vulgate is appreciated and expanded. Lot's possessions become Teutonic in character

いい

Perron

6

-as do those of Abraham.' Similar coloring is given to the gifts of Abimelech to Abraham,' the description of Sodom; and generally wherever personal property is mentioned. Again, Abraham offers sacrifice “nalles hneawlice” and his great feast assumes Teutonic characteristics. So does Belshazzar's: Belshazzar, "medugal," sends for the treasure of the Israelites; the history of the conquest by which it was gained is briefly given; then-"swiðe gulpon." In Genesis also, Abimelech is wine druncen—a statement unauthorized by the Vulgate-and his speeches are modified in tone. In the same way the sentence of Cain, though very little altered, conveys more of the force of exile the grief so characteristically Teutonic, which again in Christ influences the curse pronounced by God on disobedient man, adding to the labor and sorrow inflicted by the scriptural curse,

[ru scealt] wræce dreozan

feondum to hropor fusleod zalan.10

None of these modifications or additions is important when isolated; but the total effect is a very considerable modification in the tone of the poetry. Hence, since it is in detail that the change is made, the causes which lead to its accumulation in the Anglo-Saxon poetry rank among the influences transforming scriptural story, motive, and conception. The alliterative verse and the enormous wealth of synonyms of Anglo-Saxon stand as immediate causes; but these must themselves be explained by the emotional and mental characteristics in harmony with which they evolved. Heinzel has pointed out" that the Anglo-Saxon style tends somewhat to heighten emotional expression-to carry it to extremes; and that it is excellent to convey the changing emotions of the hero and the poet. Those emotions which are well expressed by insistent reiteration are especially developed, as in the triumphant conclusion of the Exodus, already noted. Here style and emotional tendencies harmonize. Again, with the abundance of synonyms possessed by Anglo-Saxon, the exigencies of

metre do not compel accumulation of detail; if, however, such accumulation is congenial to the poet, vocabulary and metre alike offer the ready means. Here the style harmonizes with the power to realize events-to imagine the minutia which give vividness to a scene.

3

The Anglo-Saxon poets seem, indeed, to possess true dramatic imagination. Thus, when Cain slays Abel, the poet, with the scene before his eyes, sees the earth soak up the blood as it gushes forth. The episode of Noah's drunkenness is made more dramatic than in the Vulgate by the addition of Ham's laughter, which excites Noah's anger. The same thorough realization is shown in the expansion of Hagar's speech; and in the telling insertion that Sarah's laughter was joyless. The intended sacrifice of Isaac is vividly described-the fire is actually kindled. Detail is similarly added in the Christ, in the description of the rending of the veil of the Temple;" its beauty is emphasized, and its appearance when rent "swylce hit seaxes ecz | scearp purhwode." Even in entirely superhuman matters the same tendency to insert detail may possibly be seen in the Temptation of Christ, 11. 56-60-from hell's door to hell's bottom is a hundred thousand miles; in the Exeter Book Descent into Hell, ll. 100, 101-the time at which the descent occurs is definitely named; and in the Fallen Angels, 11. 338-40-though here the "twelve miles" distance at which the gnashing of teeth in hell can be heard may simply represent any considerable distance.

The dramatic imagination which adds these vivid details produces an attempt to realize the persons as well as the scenes described. This tendency is clearest in the national shaping given to the emotions and motives of scriptural personages.' It may be connected, in another direction, with the attempt to give logical coherence and plausibility to scriptural story-an attempt which shows the capacity to feel the significance of detail, and

1 Gen., 11. 978-86; repeated 11. 1097, 1098. In 11. 1015, 1016, the paraphrase merely follows the Vulgate.

2 Ibid., 11. 2272 ff.

3 Ibid., 11. 2380, 2381.

4 Ibid., 1. 2922. Cf. the account in Exodus, 11. 397, 415. The preparations might perhaps recall the funeral pyres, e. g., in Beowulf, l. 1119-22, 3144-48.

Dramatic

5 Christ, ll. 1134-42.

6 Ibid., 11. 1141, 1142.

7 See pp. 29 ff.

also a disposition to give the imagination as much support as possible from reason.

In Daniel, for example, the cause of the fall of Jerusalem is added;' the king's threat to the Chaldeans' is made more reasonable by emphasis on their pretences to wisdom; and it is specially explained that the bonds of the "children" are burned off -a necessary condition, unnoticed in the Vulgate, to their walking out of the "oven." Another aspect of this feeling is seen in the special emphasis apparently felt to be necessary to insure the acceptance of so wonderful an incident as the removal of Adam's rib.3 Genesis B, however, surpasses in coherence and plausibility all the poems which exhibit only Anglo-Saxon transforming influences. The account of the temptation is well conceived. The devil first tempts Adam, whose caution is well depicted; then, foiled, he turns to Eve. His speeches, not too eager, are finely created; and Eve's reasoning is very plausible-once convinced, she finds ample proofs of the devil's good faith. Again, an explanation is inserted' why the woman yielded when the man resisted; and the obvious comment that it is strange God permitted the temptation is anticipated."

Miracles essential to the framework of the narrative are accepted without question—the Anglo-Saxon felt no strangeness in supernatural incidents per se. It was simply in detail, where no contradiction of his authority was involved, that his logical and dramatic imagination tended to harmonize and complete the statements handled.

The capacity for imaginative vision-for mental reconstruction of scenes and events-is naturally associated with a strong sense of contrast. Not only is the incident itself pictured with attendant detail, as already said, but a wider glance forward and backward brings out the incidents future and past with which it is connected. This tendency is related to that which, acting in a

1 Ll. 17 ff.

2 Ll. 135 ff. 3 Gen., 176 ff. 4 Ll. 590, 591, 649. 5 Ll. 595-98. 6 Cf. Heinzel: Nur selten wurden solche Unebenheiten bemerkt und geglättet. In der Regel nahm sie der a.s. Übersetzer ehrfurchtsvoll oder gedankenlos in seine Arbeit hinüber."-Q. und F., X, p. 43. The statement is true of expressed and essential inconsistencies, but not of those which could be remedied without violence to the original. In the former case the Christian's reverence outweighed the native instinct for coherent narrative.