and their state was agitated by domestic broils, resulting from the unequal division of property, the ambition of rival nobles, and the diminished power of the kings. At length, Lycurgus having obtained the supreme authority, as a guardian of his nephew Chariláus, directed his attention to establishing a system of law, which might prevent the recurrence of such disorders. The legislation of Lycurgus was not a written code; and many things of later origin, have been erroneously attributed to this lawgiver. His great object, was to insure the continuance of the Spartans as a dominant military caste, by perpetuating a race of athletic and warlike man; and hence his laws referred rather to domestic life and physical education than to the constitution of the state, or the form of its government.

He continued the relation of caste between the Spartans and Laconians, and the double line of kings as leaders in war and first magistrates in peace. He is said to have instituted the gerúsia, or senate, of which no one could be a member who had not passed the age of sixty; but it is uncertain whether he founded the college of the five eph'ori, or inspectors, chosen annually, with powers somewhat similar to those of the Roman tribunes; he certainly did not invest them with the power they assumed in later ages. There were also popular assemblies; but they could originate no law, nor make any alteration in the resolutions submitted to them by the kings and the senate, their power being confined to a simple approbation or rejection.

The chief regulations in private life were, the equal distribution of lands, the removal of every species of luxury, the arrangement of domestic relations so as to insure a race of hardy citizens, and the complete establishment of slavery. Thus a military commonwealth was established in Greece, which for ever banished a chance of tranquillity; since the Spartan citizens must have been impelled to war by the restlessness common to man, when all the occupations of household life and of agriculture were intrusted to the care of the Hélots, as their slaves were usually called. The strength of the Spartan army lay in its heavy-armed infantry; they usually fought in a phalanx or close column, and were remarkable for the skill and rapidity of their evolutions. They marched to the charge with a measured regular step, and never broke their ranks either to plunder or pursue a flying enemy. After battle, every soldier was obliged to produce his shield, as a proof that he had behaved bravely and steadily.

The first great war in which the Spartans engaged was with their neighbors the Messenians (B. c. 743). After a long series of sanguinary engagements, whose horrors were aggravated by cruel superstitions, the -Messenians were totally subdued, and forced to give up half the revenue of their lands to the Spartans (B. c. 722). During this war, the Spartan army, consisting of the greater part of the citizens who had attained the military age, bound themselves by a voluntary oath not to return home until they had subdued their enemies. The war being protracted beyond expectation, the senate, fearing that the Spartan race -would become extinct, invited the young men, who had not taken the obligation, to return home, and permitted them to have promiscuous intercourse with the women. The offspring of these irregular connexions were called Parthen'iæ; they had no certain father, nor were they,

though citizens of Sparta, entitled to any inheritance. Finding themselves despised by the other Spartans, they entered into a conspiracy with the Hélots, which was detected at the moment it was about to explode. The senate, however, was afraid to punish so powerful a body; sufficient means of transport, arms, and munitions, were supplied to the Parthen'iæ, who, under the guidance of Phalan'tus, proceeded to southern Italy, where they founded the city of Taren'tum.

The oppression of the Spartans drove the Messenians to revolt, and they found a worthy leader in Aristom'enes, a youth descended from the ancient line of Messenian kings. So rapid and decisive were his successes, that the Spartans sought the advice of the oracle, and received the mortifying response, that they should solicit a general from the Athenians. Ambassadors were sent to urge this request; and the Athenians sent back the poet Tyrtæ'us, who had, indeed, borne arms, but was never distinguished as a warrior. His patriotic odes roused the spirit of the Spartan soldiers, and they renewed the war with more zeal and greater success than ever. Notwithstanding these advantages acquired by the Spartans, Aristom'enes protracted the defence of his country more than eleven years; but at length Messéne was taken by treachery, aud its heroic defenders forced to seek refuge in Arcadia. Here Aristom'enes planned an expedition against Sparta, whose citizens were engaged in plundering Messénia; but he was betrayed by the Arcadian monarch, and his last plan for the redemption of his country frustrated (B. c. 671).

Sparta had conquered, but the struggle had greatly weakened the strength of the state; and in her subsequent wars with the Tegeans and Argives, she was far from maintaining her ancient superiority in arms. The important island of Cythéra was, however, wrested from the Argives, about B. c. 550.

SECTION III.-Topography of Athens.

ATHENS was situated in a plain, which on the southwest, extended for about four miles toward the sea and the harbors, but on the other side was enclosed by mountains. Several rocky hills arose in the plain itself; the largest and highest of which was fortified by Cécrops as the citadel, or Acropolis, and was sometimes called Cecrópia. Around this the city was built, most of the buildings, however, spreading toward the sea. The summit of the hill was nearly level for a space of about eight hundred feet in length and four hundred in breadth; as if Nature herself had prepared a fit locality for those masterpieces of architecture which announced at a distance the splendor of Athens. The only road that led to the Acropolis passed through the Propylæa, a magnificent gateway adorned with two wings, and two temples full of the finest pieces of sculpture and painting. It was erected under the administration of Per'icles, by the architect Mnesic'les, and was decorated with admirable sculptures of Phid'ias. Through these splendid portals was an ascent by marble steps to the summit of the hill, on which were erected the temples of the guardian deities of Athens. On the left was the temple of Pallas Athenè (Minerva), the protectress of cities, containing a column fabled to have fallen from heaven, and an olive-tree

believed to have sprung spontaneously from the earth at the mandate of the goddess. Beyond this was a temple of Neptune. On the right side arose the Parthenon, sacred to the virgin Minerva, the glory of Athens, the noblest triumph of Grecian architecture. From whatever quarter the traveller arrived, whether by land or sea, the first thing he saw was the Parthenon rearing up its lofty head above the city and the citadel.

At the foot of the Acropolis, on one side, was the Odéum, or musichall, and the Theatre of Bacchus, where the tragic contests were celebrated on the festival of that deity; on the other side was the Prytanéum, where the chief magistrates and most meritorious citizens were honorably entertained at a table furnished at the public expense.

A small valley called Cœlè (the hollow) lay between the Acropolis and the hill on which the court of Areopagus held its sessions; and it also separated the Areop'agus from the Pnyx, a small rocky hill on which the general assemblies of the people were held. It was remarkable only for the meanness and simplicity of its furniture, which formed a striking contrast to the grandeur of the neighboring buildings. Here the spot from which the eminent orators addressed the people may still be seen for it 'is imperishable, being cut in the natural rock, and it has been recently cleared from rubbish, as well as the four steps by which it was ascended.

Beyond the Pnyx lay the Ceramicus, or pottery-ground, containing the market-place. This was a large square, surrounded on all sides with statues and public buildings; at the south was the senate-house, and the statues of the Epon'ymi, ten heroes from whom the tribes of Athens received their respective names. At the east were erected two splendid stoai, or porticoes; that of the Her'mæ, or statues of Mercury, on which were inscribed the names of the citizens, allies, and slaves, who had distinguished themselves in the Persian war; and that called Poëcilé, ornamented with many splendid paintings, particularly one representing Miltiades at the battle of Marathon. Under this stoa the philosopher Zeno used to lecture his pupils, whence his followers are called Stoics.

There were three principal gymnásia, or places of public exercise, near the city, where philosophers and rhetoricians delivered their lectures. The most celebrated of these was the Academy, deriving its name from having been the country-seat of the wealthy Académus, who spent the greater part of a large fortune in ornamenting this delightful spot. Here Pláto delivered his eloquent lectures, and hence his followers are called Academics. The Lycéum, on the opposite side of the city, near the Ilys'sus, was chosen by Aristotle for his school after his return from Macedon, the Academy having been pre-occupied by Xen'ocrates. He generally instructed his pupils while walking about the groves and avenues of this highly-cultivated place, and on this account his followers were called Peripatetics. Cynosar'ges was about a mile from the Lycéum, and was the residence of Antis'thenes, the founder of the Cynic sect.

The whole country round Athens, particularly the long road to the Peira'us, was ornamented with monuments of all kinds, especially with tombs of great poets, statesmen, and warriors. This road was enclosed

by a double wall, called the northern and southern, erected under the administration of Themistocles: it was nearly five miles in length on both sides, and enclosed the two harbors Peira'us and Phal'ereus. It was rather more than eighty feet high, built entirely of freestone, and so broad that two baggage-wagons could pass each other. The Peiræ'us and Phal'ereus, but especially the former, might be regarded as little cities, with public squares, temples, market-places, &c.; and the commercial crowd that enliven the quays gave the chief harbor a more animated appearance than Athens itself. The Munychian port lay east of Athens, and, like the others, was formed naturally by the bays of the coast. It was a place of considerable natural strength, and was garrisoned by the Lacedæmonians after they had subdued Athens.

SECTION IV.-The History of Athens to the Beginning of the Persian War. FROM B. C. 1300 To в. c. 500.

THE political history of Athens begins properly with the reign of Théseus, who succeeded his father Ægeus about B. c. 1300. Certain institutions, such as the court of Areop'agus, and the division of the people into eupat'ridæ (nobles), geórgi (husbandmen), and demiur'gi (mechanics), are so manifestly derived from the Egyptian system of caste, that we may without hesitation assign them to Cécrops. Theseus, however, deserves to be regarded as the founder of the state, since, instead of the four independent districts, or démoi, into which Attica was divided, he established one body politic, and made Athens the seat of government. Among his successors, the most remarkable were Mnes'theus, who fell before Troy, and Códrus, whose generous devotion, as has been already related, led to the total abolition of royalty. the abolition of royalty (B. c. 1068), thirteen archons of his family ruled in succession, differing from kings only in being accountable for their administration. The first was Médon, the last Alcmæon; after his death (B. c. 752), archons were chosen every ten years from the family of Códrus. There were seven of these, the last of whom ceased to rule B. c. 682. Nine annual archons were then appointed by the pow erful class of nobility, consisting not only of the descendants of such foreign princes as had taken refuge in Athens, but of those Athenian families which time and accident had raised to opulence and distinction. The powers of these magistrates were not equal; their rank and offices were so arranged, that the prerogatives of the former kings and the preceding archons were divided among the first three of the nine. Nothing was gained by the great body of the people during these revolutions. The equestrian order, so called from their fighting on horseback, enjoyed all authority, religious, civil, and military. The Athenian populace were reduced to a condition of miserable servitude; the lives and fortunes of individuals were left at the discretion of magistrates, who were too much disposed to decide according to party prejudices or their own private interests.

In this confusion, Dráco was chosen to prepare a code of laws (B. c. 622). He was a man of unswerving integrity, but of unexampled severity. His laws bore the impress of his character; the punishment of death was denounced against all crimes, small as well as great; and this in

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discriminate cruelty rendered the whole code inoperative. Human nature revolted against such legal butchery; and Dráco, to avoid the public indignation, fled to Egína, where he died an exile.

This ineffectual effort only augmented the divisions of the state; the excesses of the aristocratic factions produced the most violent indignation. The state was in fact reduced to perfect anarchy. To remedy these disorders, Sólon, who had already won the confidence of his countrymen by planning and accomplishing an enterprise for the recovery of Salamis, was unanimously raised to the dignity of first magistrate, legislator, and sovereign arbiter (B. c. 594). He was eminently qualified for this important station. Descended from the ancient kings of Athens, he applied himself in early life to commercial pursuits, and having secured a competency by honorable industry, he travelled to distant lands in search of knowledge. Such was his success, that he was reckoned the chief of the sages commonly called the Seven Wise Men of Greece, who in his age laid the foundation of Grecian philosophy.

The chief object of Sólon's legislation was to restrain the excessive power of the aristocracy, without, however, introducing a pure democracy. He abolished all the laws of Dráco, except those against murder. The state of debtors calling loudly for relief, he made an equitable adjustment of the claims of creditors; but at the same time conciliated capitalists by raising the value of money. He abolished slavery and imprisonment for debt, which had led to great abuses and cruelties.

Without abolishing the ancient local divisions he arranged the citizens in four classes, according to their property, measured in agricultural produce. 1. The first class were the pentacos'i-medim'ni, whose annual income exceeded five hundred bushels (medim'ni; 2, the knights (hippéis), whose revenue was equal to four hundred; 3, the zeugítæ, who had three hundred; and 4, the thétes, whose yearly revenue fell short of that sum. Citizens of all classes had a right of voting at the popular assemblies and in the courts of judicature; but magisterial offices were limited to the first three classes. The archonship was left unaltered; but it was ordained that none of these magistrates should hold military command during his year of office. A council of four hundred was chosen from the first three classes, possessing senatorial authority: the members were selected by lot; but they were obliged to undergo a very strict examination into their past lives and characters before they were permitted to enter upon office. The archons were bound to consult the council in every important public matter; and no subject could be discussed in the general assembly of the people which had not previously received the sanction of the four hundred.

The popular assemblies consisted of all the four classes, and usually met on the rocky hill called the Pnyx, described in the proceeding section. They had the right of confirming or rejecting new laws, of electing the magistrates, of discussing all public affairs referred to them by the council, and of judging in all state trials.

According to Sólon's plan, the court of Areop'agus should have been the chief pillar of the Athenian constitution. Before his time it was a mere engine of aristocratic oppression; but Sólon modified its constitution, and enlarged its powers. It was composed of persons who had