After the death of Joseph, but at what distance of time there is no evidence to determine, a change of dynasty took place in Egypt. This was probably the event described by profane writers as the conquest of Egypt by the Hyk'sos, and consequently the Pharaoh who so cruelly tyrannized over the Israelites was not a native Egyptian, but an intrusive foreigner. The motive assigned for oppressing the Israelites was, "this people are more and mightier than we"-which could hardly be true of the whole Egyptian nation, but might very probably be of a race of conquerors. One of the tasks which this cruel despot imposed on the Israelites, was the building of "treasure cities." Among the cruelties inflicted on them, their being employed in the manufacture of brick is particularly mentioned: under the burning sun of Egypt, the process of wetting, tempering, and working the clay previous to its being moulded, was so painful and unwholesome that it was usually the work of slaves and captives. But when the Pharaoh found that the Israelites still continued to "multiply and wax very mighty," he had recourse to the barbarous expedient of extermination, and ordered that all the male children should be destroyed. Moses was saved from the general slaughter and educated at the Egyptian court; after which, though the fact is not expressly stated, the cruel edict appears to have fallen into disuse. Moses never forgot his parentage and nation; probably the courtiers of Pharaoh failed not to remind him that he belonged to a degraded caste.

Having been compelled to quit Egypt for having slain one of the oppressors, Moses sought shelter in the land of Midian, where Jahovah appeared to him, and commanded him to achieve the deliverance of His chosen people, investing him with the miraculous powers necessary for so difficult an object. The reigning Pharaoh refused to part with so valuable a race of slaves, and his obstinacy was punished with ten dreadful plagues. The smiting of the first-born was the consummation of these fearful judgments: Pharaoh and his subjects hasted to send the Israelites away, and they quitted the land of Egypt. Avarice induced the Pharaoh to pursue them with a mighty army; but God opened a passage for the Israelites through the Red sea, while the Egyptian host, attempting to pursue them, were overwhelmed with the returning waters.

This calamity (B. c. 1491) greatly weakened the power of the Hyk'sos, already menaced by the increasing strength of the Theban monarchy. Previous to this, we have scarcely any probable account of the names and ages of the Egyptian kings, except that Ménes appears to have been the founder of the monarchy, and Osirtesen I. the Pharaoh who received Joseph. But henceforth we are able to determine with probability some general epochs by comparing the evidence of the monuments with that of the historians. To this period belong the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties of Manetho, the founders of the most important monuments of Upper Egypt. In the reign of Am ́enoph I., the Thebans extended their conquests to the south, and seized on part of Núbia. Crude brick arches were constructed at this period (B. c. 1540) and glass was soon after brought into use. Under the fourth king of this dynasty, Thutmósis, or Thothmes III., the children of Israel departed from Egypt, and the Theban monarch succeeded in

expelling the Hyk'sos-greatly weakened by the destruction of their best warriors in the Red sea-from the greater part of the country, and shutting them up in their fortresses. Their great stronghold was taken by his son and successor, Thoth'mes IV.; and the shepherdkings surrendered on condition of being allowed to withdraw into Syria. The intimate connexion between these two events-the Exodus of the Israelites, and the expulsion of the Hyk'sos-have led to their being confounded together. The next remarkable monarch was Am'enoph III., who reigned conjointly with his brother; but, soon becoming weary of divided empire, he expelled his partner. The dethroned brother was probably the Dan'aus of the Greeks, who, leaving Egypt with his partisans, settled in Ar'gos, of which he became king (B. C. 1430). The pretended vocal statue of Mem'non was erected in honor of Am ́enoph; and in his reign the building of the great temples seems to have been commenced. He annexed the greater part of Núbia to his dominions. Among his successors the name of Ram'eses is the most distinguished. It was borne by four sovereigns; two in the eighteenth, and two in the nineteenth dynasty. The first was expelled by his brother, and is by some identified with Dan'aus: the second, called Mi-Am'mon, "he who loves Am'mon," was the founder of the palace of Medínet Abú at Thebes; and from the sculptures on its walls, he appears to have been a warrior and conqueror.

Am'enoph IV. was the last of the eighteenth dynasty. In his unfortunate reign the Hyk'sos renewed their invasions; and the king, confiding his son, a child of five years old, to the care of a friend, fled into Ethiopia, where he remained thirteen years an exile. During this period the Hyk'sos were guilty of the most wanton excesses; for "they not only set fire to the cities and villages, but committed every kind of sacrilege, and destroyed the images of the gods, and roasted and fed upon those sacred animals that were worshipped; and having compelled the priests and prophets to kill and sacrifice them, they cast them naked out of the country." Amen'ophis at length, aided by an Ethiopian army, and supported by his gallant son, expelled the shepherd-kings, and restored the prosperity of his country.

Ram'eses the Great, called also Séthos or Sesos'tris, is the most celebrated of the Egyptian monarchs. The conquests attributed to him are so mighty, that he has been by some regarded as merely a symbolical being; but from the evidence of the monuments, he appears to be undoubtedly an historical personage. It is indeed doubtful whether the Ram'eses who founded Medínet Abú, or the son of Am'enoph, be the great conqueror who carried his arms into Bac'tria in the east, and Thrace in the west, and before whose throne captives from the frozen Caucasus mingled with the sable tribes from the extreme south of Ethiopia: but the existence of this conqueror, his daring hunts of the lion in the desert while a youth, his aid in the expulsion of the Hyk'sos, his extensive conquests, and the vast treasures he collected from the vanquished nations, are satisfactorily proved by the sculptured history of his exploits on the walls of the buildings he erected or enlarged. *Others assign Dan'aus to a later period.

† Manétho, as quoted by Joséphus.

Wilkinson identifies Ram'eses II. with Sesos'tris.

Having subdued the mountainous districts east of Egypt, and part of the Arabian peninsula, he fitted out a fleet of war-galleys to scour the Indian seas. The naval engagements sculptured on the walls of Medínet Abú and Karnac fully support the account of these expeditions given by the historians, and show that they were extended to the western coast of Hindost'an. Ethiopia was subdued, and compelled to pay a tribute of ebony, gold, and elephants' teeth. The battle, the victory, the offering of the booty and tribute, are represented on the monuments at Kalabshè, in Lower Núbia. His campaigns in Asia and Europe were equally remarkable. Northward he subdued Syria, Anatólia, and part of Thrace; eastward he is said to have advanced as far as Bac'tria and India. There can, however, be no doubt of his exploits in the neighborhood of Assyria and the Euphrátes; for they are represented on the sculptures of the building called the tomb of Osyman'dyas, but which should rather be called the temple-palace of King Ram'eses.

It is singular that no record of such a conqueror should be found in the Scriptures; for he must have subdued the land of Cánaan and Syria, countries which were always coveted by the rulers of Egypt. Mr. Milman very plausibly argues that the conquests of Sesos'tris took place while the Israelites were wandering in the desert, and that this providential arrangement was intended to facilitate the conquest of the promised land. There can, however, be no doubt that some king of Egypt performed many of the exploits attributed to Sesos'tris, though it is very difficult to ascertain the exact period in which he flourished.

The successors of Sesos'tris seem to have sunk into the usual indolence of oriental monarchs. Their history, for nearly three hundred years, presents little more than a catalogue of names, until we come to Sesoúchis, the Shishak of the Holy Scriptures, who was the first monarch of the twenty-second dynasty. In the fifth year of the reign of Rehoboam, the foolish and wicked son of Solomon (B. c. 970), Shishak made war against Palestine, and pillaged Jerusalem. His army consisted of twelve hundred chariots, sixty thousand horsemen, and an innumerable body of infantry, consisting not only of Egyptians, but also of Libyans, Ethiopians, and Troglody'tes. His empire consequently extended beyond the bounds of Egypt, and included a large portion of southern and western Africa.

In the next century the Egyptian monarchy declined rapidly, and the country was subjugated by Sab'aco, a foreign conqueror from Ethiopia. The history of the Ethiopian dynasty will be found in the next chapter. After some time, a priest named Séthos usurped the government, contrary to all precedent. He not only neglected the caste of warriors, but deprived them of their privileges and lands; at which they were so incensed, that they refused to bear arms in his defence. Sennach'erib, king of Assyria, prepared to invade Egypt with a very powerful army, and advanced to Pelúsium (B. c. 713). Séthos, deserted by the military caste, armed the laborers and artificers, and with this undisciplined host marched to meet the invader. A pestilence in the Assyrian camp saved Egypt from ruin, and Sennach'erib returned to meet fresh misfortunes at Jerusalem. When Séthos died, twelve princes, or heads of nomes, shared the kingdom among them; but soon quarrelling about

the limits of their respective principalities, they engaged in mutual war, and drove one of their number, Psammet'ichus, prince of Sáis, into exile. (Psammet'ichus levied an army of Greek and Carian mercenaries, most of whom appear to have been pirates; and having overcome all his rivals, once more united all Egypt into a single monarchy, of which Memphis ranked as the capital, though Sáis was usually the seat of government. The intercourse with the nations in the eastern Mediterranean was greatly extended during the reign of Psammet'ichus many Greeks settled in the Egyptian seaports; and a new caste of interpreters and brokers was formed to facilitate commerce. But the patronage of foreigners, and the preference that Psammet'ichus showed for the mercenaries to whom he owed his crown, so disgusted the caste of warriors, that the whole body emigrated from their country, and setttled in Ethiopia (в. c. 650).

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SECTION IV.-History of Egypt from the Reign of Psammetichus to its Subjugation by Cambyses.

FROM B.C. 650 TO B.C. 525.

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THE accession of Psammet'ichus was followed by a complete revolution in the ancient policy of Egypt; foreign auxiliaries performed the duties of the warrior caste; plans of permanent conquests in Syria succeeded to the predatory expeditions of the ancient Pharaohs; and the political influence of the priesthood rapidly declined, as opinions were imported from abroad, and new institutions rendered necessary by increasing commerce. For several reigns, the great object of Egyptian policy was to obtain possession of the commercial cities of Syria and Phœnícia. Psammet'ichus led the way by laying siege to Azótus, a frontier town of Syria-persevering in successive attacks for twenty-nine years, until he accomplished his object.

Néchus, called in Scripture Pharaoh-Nécho, succeeded his father Psammet'ichus (B.c. 616), and became a powerful prince, both by land and sea. He built fleets in the Mediterranean and the Red seas, and attempted to unite them by cutting a canal across the isthmus of Suez; an enterprise subsequently completed by Daríus Hystáspes.* The increasing strength of the Medes and Babylonians, who had overthrown the ancient empire of Assyria, justly alarmed Nécho. He led an army against the king of Assyria, directing his march toward the Euphrátes, but was checked by the interference of Josíah, king of Judah, who tried to prevent him from besieging Car chemish or Circésium, but was defeated and slain.† Nécho, having reached the Euphrátes, captured the important city of Car chemish, or Circésium, which he garrisoned. On his return to Egypt he became master of Jerusalem, led its monarch, Jehoáhaz, away captive, and placed Jehoíakim upon the throne.

The Chaldean dynasty in Bab'ylon rose into power on the ruins of

The navigation of the northern part of the Red sea is so very dangerous that this canal was never of much use. Vessels usually stopped at My'os Hormos, now Cosseir, whence there was a good caravan-road to the Nile.

†2 Chron. xxxv. 21.

the Assyrian empire. Nebuchadnezzar, its mightiest monarch, resolved on the conquest of western Asia; and one of his earliest efforts was the expulsion of the Egyptians from Car'chemish. Nécho tried to check the progress of this formidable opponent; but he was defeated with great slaughter, and stripped of all his possessions in Syria and Judea, to the very walls of Pelúsium. Jeremíah's prophetic description of this important battle has all the minute accuracy of history.*

During his wars in Syria, Nécho did not neglect the improvement of navigation. A Phoenician fleet, equipped at his expense, sailed down the Red sea, passed the straits of Bab-el-Man'deb, and, coasting the African continent, discovered the passage round the Cape of Good Hope, two thousand years before the rediscovery of it by Diaz and Vasco de Gama. The expedition returned to Egypt through the Atlantic ocean, the straits of Gibraltar, and the Mediterranean, after an absence of three years.

During the reign of Psam'mis, the son of Nécho, a remarkable circumstance occurred (B.c. 600), tending to prove the ancient connexion between the institutions of Greece and Egypt, which has been denied by the modern historians of the German school. An embassy was sent from the city of E'lis to obtain directions for the management of the Olympic games; and the regulations suggested by the Egyptian priests were implicitly obeyed.

A'pries, the Pharaoh-Hoph'ra of Scripture, immediately after his accession (B.c. 594), attacked the Phoenician states, and conquered Sidon. He entered into a close alliance with Zedekiah, king of Judah, promising to aid him in his revolt against Nebuchadnez'zar. A'pries, in fulfilment of his engagement, led an army into Judea, and Nebuchadnezzar, on receiving intelligence of his approach, broke up the siege of Jerusalem, and hastened to meet him: but the Egyptians were afraid to encounter the Babylonian forces, and retired, without striking a blow, to their own country, leaving their allies to bear the brunt of Nebuchadnezzar's vengeance. For this act of perfidy, God, by the mouth of his prophet Ezekiel,† denounced severe vengeance on the Egyptians and their sovereign. Not less distinct is the prophecy of Jeremiah: "Behold, I will give Pharaoh-Hoph'ra, king of Egypt, into the hands of his enemies, and into the hand of them that seek his life ; as I gave Zedekiah, king of Judah, into the hand of Nebuchadnezzar, his enemy, and that sought his life."

The accomplishment followed close upon the latter prediction. A Grecian colony, established at Cyréne, being strengthened by fresh bodies of their countrymen, under their third king, Bat'tus the Happy, attacked the neighboring Libyans, and seized their land. An'dican, one of the dispossessed princes, applied for aid to Pharaoh-Hoph'ra, who sent a large army to his relief. The Egyptians were routed with great slaughter by the Cyreneans; and the fugitives, to excuse their defeat, averred that they had been designedly betrayed by their monarch. This calumny was the pretext for a universal revolt. After a long civil war, of which Nebuchadnezzar took advantage to devastate Lower Egypt, A'pries was dethroned by Am'asis, and strangled in prison (B.c. 569).

• Jeremiah xlvi. 1-10. † Ezekiel xxix. 8-15.

Jeremiah xliv. 30.