his efforts by taking up arms to drive the Syrians out of Cæsarea, and by raising seditions in almost every city where they were settled. At length the zealots attacked the Romans in the fortresses which had been erected to secure Jerúsalem, and put all who opposed them to the sword, including even the garrisons that capitulated. The governor of Syria marched into Judea to punish these disorders, but he was compelled to retreat, and the Jews now resolved to brave the entire strength of the empire (A. D. 67). The Christians of Jerúsalem, remembering our Savior's warning, retired to Pel'la, beyond the Jordan, whither the war did not reach, and their example was followed by several Jews in the higher classes.

Vespasian, a Roman general, who had already distinguished himself in Germany and Britain, was appointed by Néro to conduct the war against the Jews. He encountered everywhere a fierce resistance, and at length, when he reached Cæsaréa, he halted his army, trusting that the Jews, by their intestine tumults, would become so weakened as to afford him an easy victory (A. D. 70). Such an expectation was but too reasonable; the zealots, who had fled before the Romans, were now collected in Jerúsalem, under the command of a vile demagogue, John of Gis'chala, and being joined by the Idumeans, committed the most horrid butcheries, and polluted the temple itself with horrid murders. Another party was formed by Simon, the son of Gorías, whose atrocities in the country rivalled those of John in the city; he was invited to Jerúsalem, as a counterpoise to John and the zealots, but the remedy was worse than the disease, for Simon proved the worse scourge of the two. A third faction was formed by Eleázar, who seized the upper part of the temple, and thus, while the enemies were advancing against the devoted city, its garrison and its citizens were engaged in mutual slaughter.

In the meantime, Vespásian, having been raised to the empire intrusted the command of the army to his son Títus, who entered Judea with a very numerous and well-appointed army (A. D. 73). He advanced against Jerúsalem, meeting no resistance in the open country, a circumstance which led him to believe that the Jews had repented of their rebellion, and were preparing for submission. Under this mistaken impression, he exposed himself negligently in the difficult defile called the valley of Jehosh'aphat, where he was separated from his cavalry. In this situation he was suddenly assailed by the factions, and was exposed to such danger that his escape was regarded as little short of a miracle. The siege was now formally commenced; the Jews, shut up in the city, suffered dreadfully from famine and pestilence, but the factions did not lay aside their mutual fury; they continued to slaughter each other, even while their walls were shaken by the battering engines of the Romans. Language would fail the horrid sufferings of the besieged; hunger reduced them to the necessity of using the most revolting and unnatural substances for food, while the zealots made the miseries and groans of their starving brethren the subject of their cruel mirth, and carried their barbarity even to the sheathing their swords on these poor wretches, under pretence of trying their sharpness.

At length the walls of the city were battered down, and the Romans

besieged the temple, where the desperate factions still maintained an energetic resistance. Títus was very anxious to save the sacred edifice, but one of his soldiers threw a lighted brand into one of the windows, and the whole building was soon in flames. A fearful massacre followed; the Romans refused all quarter, and many thousands perished by the fire, the sword, or by throwing themselves headlong from the battlements. This scene of butchery was continued for several days, until Jerúsalem was left utterly desolate. The number of prisoners reserved for a fate worse than death amounted to ninety-seven thousand, eleven thousand of whom were starved to death by the neglect or cupidity of their keepers. According to Joséphus, there perished at Jerúsalem during the siege, by famine, pestilence, and the sword, more than a million of Jews and proselytes; but this statement appears to be exaggerated.

When the soldiers had ended their destructive work of burning and slaughter, Títus ordered that the entire city should be razed to the ground, with the exception of a portion of the western wall, and three towers, which he left as memorials of his conquest. So punctually were his orders executed, that, except these few buildings, nothing was left save shapeless ruins, which would indicate that the place had ever been inhabited. The victory of Títus was celebrated at Rome by a splendid triumph; a triumphal arch, which still exists, was raised to commemorate the event; and a medal struck, in which the captured land of Judea was significantly represented as a disconsolate female sitting beneath a palm-tree, while a soldier, standing by, laughed at her misery and mocked at her calamity.

CHAPTER XIII.

HISTORY OF ANCIENT ITALY.

SECTION I.-Geographical Outline.

ITALY, in its earliest signification, was the name given to the small tongue of land between the Syllet'ic and the Nepetic gulfs, that is, the southern portion of Brut'tium; but it was gradually extended to include more northern provinces, until, in the reign of the Emperor Augustus, it was applied to the great peninsula included between the Alps, the Adriatic, the Tyrrhenian and the Mediterranean seas. It was also called Hespéria, from its western situation; Satur'nia, from the fable of Saturn's flight thither; Aus'onia and Enótria, from some of the most ancient tribes of inhabitants.

The most convenient division of the peninsula is into three portions: Cisalpine Gaul in the north, Italy Proper in the centre, and Magna Græcia in the south.

Subalpine Italy received the name of Gaul from the Gallic hordes that settled in the northern and western districts; it was called for distinction Cisalpine, or Citérior, because it lay on the side of the Alps next to Rome, and Togáta, because in a late age, its inhabitants began to use the tóga, or national dress of the Romans. From the Alps, this province at first extended to the city of An'cona, in the province of Picénum; but, in the later ages of the Roman republic, the river Rúbicon (Rugone), between Ravenna and Arim'inum, was considered the limit of its frontiers.

The principal Subalpine tribes were the Vedian'tii, inhabiting the small tract lying on the east bank of the Várus (Var), and extending from the territory of Nice (Nice), to the Maritime Alps, or that branch of the mountain-chain which joins the Western Mediterranean: the Vagæn'ni, north of the Maritime Alps near the source of the river Pádus (Po); and the Tauríni, at the other side of the Pádus, on which stood their capital, Taurásia, subsequently called Augus'ta Taurinórum (Turin).

North of the Taur'ini, and among the mountains, was the kingdom of Cottíus, who gave his name to the Cottian Alps. Thence to the Greek Alps, which extended to Mons Jóvis (Great St. Bernard), there were several warlike Gallic tribes, but none of any particular note in history.

Ligúria lay south of the river Pádus, extending to the Mediterranean sea, between the rivers Mácra and Várus. Its chief cities on the seacoast were Nicæ'a (Nice or Nizza), erected by the Massilians to protect their frontier against the Ligurian mountaineers: Pórtus Her'culis

Mona'ci (Monaco), Al'bium Intemélium (Vintimiglia), Al'bium Ingan'num (Albengia), Sab'ata (Savona), Gen'ua or Jan'ua (Genoa), Por'tus Delphini (Porto Fino), and Portus Lúnæ (Golfo delle Spezie). Of these Gen'ua was the most important, being the great emporium of Ligurian commerce. The principal towns in the interior were Polléntia (Pollenza), As'ta (Asti), and Indus'tria (Tortona). This last city was called Bodencomágum by the earlier Ligurians, because it stood on the Po, which they named Boden'cus, a word in their language signifying "bottomless." Next to Liguria lay the district named Gallia Cispadána, or Gaul south of the Po; it was chiefly inhabited by the Boii, the Lingónes, and the Senónes. The principal towns of the Boii were Placéntia, Parma, Mútina (Modena), and Bonónia (Bologna). The Lingónes possessed Raven'na, Faven'tia (Faenza), Solóna (Citta di Sole), and Ca'sena; and to the Senónes belonged Arimin'um (Rimini), Pisaúrum (Pesaro), Séna Gallica (Sinigaglia), and An'cona.

Gal'lia Transpadana, or north of the Pádus, had the great Alpine chain on the north and west, between which and the Po it extended to the river Formio (Il Risano), which separated it from Istria. It was inhabited by the Òróbii, the In'subres, the Læ'vi, the Cenoman'ni, the Euganei, and the Ven'eti. The principal cities in the territory of the Oróbii were Con'rum (Conro), Ber'gamum (Bergamo), and Fórum Licin'ii (Berlasina); the In'subres possessed Mediolánum (Milan), Laus Pompeii (Lodi), and Fórum Intuntórum (Crema): to the Cenoman'ni belonged Brix'ia (Brescia), Cremóna, Man'tua, and Ver'ona: the Eugánei, owned Sábium, Vobern'a, Ed'rum, and Van'nia, cities long since demolished: and the Ven'eti were masters of Patávium (Padua), Vicen'tia (Vicenza), Ates'te (Este), Fórum Alliéni (Ferrara), Tar'visum (Treviso), Aquileia (Aquilea), Fórum Júlii (Friuli), and Tergéste (Trieste). In later ages, a horde, called the Carni, wrested from the Ven'eti the cities and country between the rivers For'mio and Talaven'tum (Piave).

Central or Proper Italy extended along the Adriatic coast from the city of An'cona to the river Fren'to (Fortore), and on the Mediterranean side was limited by the rivers Mácra and Sil'arus (Sele). It comprehended Etrúria, Um'bria, Sabin'ium, Látium, Picénum, with the countries of the Vestíni, Marrucíni, Pelig'ni, Mar'si, Fret'ani, Samnítes, Hirpíni, Campáni, and Picentíni.

Etrúria was inhabited by two distinct races, that seem to have very slowly amalgamated, the Tyrrhéni and the Hetrus'ci. It was bounded on the east by the river Tiber, on the west by the Mácra, on the north by the chain of the Apennines, and on the south by that portion of the Mediterranean commonly called the Tuscan sea. It was divided into a dodecarchy, or government of twelve tribes and cities. These ruling cities in the most flourishing period of Etrurian history were, Volsin'ii (Bolsena), Clusium (Chiusi), Perúsia (Perugia), Cortóna, Aret'ium (Arezzo), Falérii (Civita Castellana), Volater'ræ (Volterra), Vetulónium (Grosseto), Rusel'læ (Cerveteri), and the cities of Veíi, Tarquiníi, and Cæ're, which at present lie in ruins. There were many other places of importance in Etruria: on the seacoast were Lúna (L'Erice), Píse (Pisa), Por'tus Her'culis Libur'ni (Livorno or Leghorn), Papulónia now in ruins, Tal'amon (Telamone), Centumcel'læ (Civita Vecchia), and

Al'sium (Palo). There were besides, in the interior, Nep'ete (Nepe), Sútrium (Sutri), Fánum Voltum'næ (Viterbo), Hortánum (Orti), Herbánum (Orvieto), Senæ Julia (Saona), Floren'tia (Fiorenza, Firenze, or Florence), Pistória (Pistoia), and Lúca (Lucca).

Umbria was bounded on the south by the river Nar (Nera), on the north by the Adriatic sea, on the east by the Æsis (Fiumicino), and on the west partly by the Tiber, and partly by the Bedesis (Il Roneo), which falls into the Adriatic near Ravenna. But the maritime part of Umbria having been early conquered by the Senonian Gauls, the cities it contains have been already mentioned in the account of Gallia Cispadána. The Umbrian cities on the Adriatic side of the Apennines were Sarsína, Urbínum (Urbino), Metauren'se (Castel Durante), Sentínum (Sentimo), and Cam'ers (Camerino). On the other side of these mountains were Igúvium (Ugubio), Mevánia (Bagagna), Spolet'ium (Spoleti), Tifer'num (Citta di Castella), Nucéria (Nocera), Assis'ium (Assisi), Hispellum (Ispello), Fulgin'ium (Foligno), Interam'nium (Terni), Narnia (Narni), and Ocric'ulum (Ocricoli).

The territory of the Sabines lay between the Nar, which divided it from Umbria, and the A'nio (Teverone), by which it was separated from Latium. It contained the city of Cúres, whose inhabitants, migrating to Rome, are said to have given its citizens the name of Quirites; Reáte (Rieti), Nur'sia (Norcia), E'retum (Monte Rotondo), and Amiter'num (Lamentaria).

Látium was at first restricted within very narrow limits, being bounded by the Tiber, the A'nio (Teverone), and the Circæan promontory (Monte Cercilli); but after the subjugation of the 'qui, Herníci, Vol'sci, and Ausónes, it was extended to the Líris (Garigliano); and hence arises the distinction between Old and New Látium. The chief cities of Old Látium were ROME, Tíbur (Tivoli), Prænes'te (Palestrina), Tus'culum (Frascati), Aric'ia, Lanúvium (Citta Lavina), Al'ba Lon'ga (Albano), Lauren'tum (Paterno), and Os'tia. There were, besides, four Latin towns, of which the ruins can now scarcely be traced, Gábii, Antem'næ, Collátia, and Ar'dea. The chief cities of the Æqui were Car'sula (Arsuli), Valéria (Vico Varo), Subláqueum (Subiaco), and Al'gidum, now in ruins. To the Herníci belonged Anag'nia (Anagni), Alátrium (Alatri), Ver'ulæ (Veroli), and Ferentínum (Ferentino). In the country of the Volsci were An'tium, Cir'cæ, and Sues'sa Pométia, all three long since ruined; Anx'ur (Terracina), Vel'itræ (Veletri), Priver'num (Piperno), Aquínum (Aquino), Casínum (Monte Cassino), Arpinum (Arpino), Fregel'læ (Ponte Corvo), and Interam'na (L'Isola). The Ausónes possessed Caréto (Gaeta), Fun'di (Fondi), and For'miæ (Mola).

Picénum extended from the Adriatic to the Apennines, between the Æ'sis (Esino) and the Aternus (Pescara). The chief cities of the Picen'tes were Ancóna, As'culum (Ascoli), Interam'nium (Teramo), and A'tria (Atri). Several other nations besides the Picen'tes were included within the boundaries of Picénum. Of these, the Vestíni possessed An'gulus (Civita di Sancto Angelo) and Avella; the Marrucíni owned but one city, Téate (Chiete); the Peligni possessed Corfin'ium, now in ruins, and Sul'mo (Sulmona); the Mar'si, in the interior of the country, close to the Apennines, had only one important town,