image of Juggernaut, or Mahadeo, stands in the centre of the building, upon an elevated altar. The idol is described as being an irregular pyramidal black stone, and the temple lit up only with lamps. In the ancient Hindoo writings, another kind of temple is described, of which now no vestige is to be found. The Ayeen Akberry relates that near to Juggernaut is the temple of the sun, in the erection of which the whole revenue of the province of Orissa, for twelve years, was entirely expended; that the wall which surrounded the whole was 150 cubits high, and nineteen cubits thick; that there were three entrances: at the eastern gate were two elephants, each with a man on its trunk; on the west, two figures of horsemen completely armed; and Over the northern gate, two tigers sitting over two dead ele phants. In front of the gate was a pillar of black stone, of an octagonal form, fifty cubits high; and after ascending nine fights of steps, there was an extensive enclosure with a large puia constructed of stone, and decorated with sculpture. Suen are the ancient monuments of which India can boast, long before architecture had reached that proud eminence on which it stood in ancient Greece. In our next lesson we shall glance at those of Persia. LESSONS IN GREEK.—III. GENERAL REMARKS ON THE NOUN, THE ADJECTIVE, AND THE PREPOSITIONS.-THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. GENDER. Norns er Substantives are names of objects or things which exist in space or in the mind. There are, in Greek, three genders: the masculine, to denote the male sex; the feminine, to denote the female sex; and the neuter (Latin neuter, neither), to denote objects which are neither male nor female. The genders are distinguished partly by the sense and partly by the terminations of the nouns. There are terminations, for instance, which denote the feminine gender, as 7; there are other terminations which denote the masculine gender, as as in the first declension; and, again, there are others which denote the neuter gender, as or. This is a peculiarity to which we have nothing similar in English adjectives. Those who have studied Latin are already familiar with it. In regard to gender as denoted by the meaning, let the ensuing rules be committed to memory. arened reet of the dumpst posed of alep`ants, horses, and to rs, marved with great exactRound the wi's a nicat two rows of cavities for revving lamps A fancier oni is an aitar of a conver mbapo, twenty-seven hh, ami twenty feet in Hameter: roun this are As a er amps, and directly over it is a large concave demo cut out of the rock. It is said that about this grand pagoda there are ninety figures or dois, and not less than 600 of them figures within the precincts of the excavations. The cave temple at Carli is even on a greater scale than now described But the temples of Elora, near Dowlatabad, are rookoned the most surprising and extensive monuments of ancient Hindoo architecture. They consist of an entire hill excavated into a range of là gà'y-seu'ntured and ornamented temples. The number and migr‘ence of these subterranean edition, the extent and the loctress of some, the endless diver mity of the sculpture of o sers, the variety of curious follage of miunto tracery, the highly wrought p ars, roh mythological do i na, macred shrines and volossal statues, all both astonish and de tract the und of the bebol ir It appears truly wonder ful that such prodigious efforts of labour and skill should remam, from times certainly not barcarous, without a trace to tell who hand by which they were designed, or the populous and powerful nation by which they were produced. The courts of Boden, of Juggernaut, of Parasu Rama, and the Doomar Tena of nuptial palace, are the naries given to several of the great excavations, The greatest admiration has been cited by the one called keylas, or Paradise, consisting of a 2. Of the feminine gender are the names of female beings, of conical edifico, separated from the rest, and hewn out of the trees, of lands, of islands, and of most cities, as :-Kopn, a girl; Boded rook, 100 foot high, and upwards of 300 feet in circum-8pus, an oak; Apradia, Arcadia; Aeoßos, Lesbos; Koλopur, foromon, entirely covered with mythological sculptures. Colophon. Besides the excavated temples of India, there are several edle and different forms which may here be noticed. First, those to compi medī arī sapunta or oblong enclosures; secondly, temples in Form of a con, and thirdly, temples of a circular form. Of templow of the first kind, the largest one remaining is that The circumference of the " pingham war Trinchinopoly. toward wall in suid to extend nearly four miles. The whole v hún vronsi da of woven squaro enclosures, the walls being 350 A tant from each othe In the innermost spacious square How long in In the middle of each side of each enclosure them in autoway under a lofty tower; that in the outward which farm the south, is ornamented with pillars of For thirty three feet long, and five feet in diameter. top komplem of the second kind--namely, those in the form of 6 most remarkable is the great temple in the city of the banks of the Ganges, which has been devoted koch prior and science of the Hindoos from the earliest The form of the temple is that of a la in the centre, which towards the top the extremity of each branch of the of equal length, there is a tower with # tory. ex is on the outside. form, the temple of Juggernaut is 1. Of the masculine gender are the names of male beings, of winds, of months, and of most rivers, as :-λTwy, Plato; Zecupos, the west wind; Exaroußair, the month Hecatombeon; Euparas, the river Eurotas. 3. Of the neuter gender are the names of fruits, the diminu tive in ov (except the female proper name Acorrior), the names of the letters of the alphabet, the infinitives, all words not de clinable in the singular and the plural, and every word used merely as the sign of a sound. 4. Of the common gender are personal nouns which, like our child, may be applied to male or female; thus, eos may be used of a male or female divinity, and so be rendered either god or goddess. This common gender" is a grammatical phrase used to denote such nouns as are common to both males and females; that is, are sometimes masculine and sometimes feminine. In Greek grammar it is usual to employ the definite article, in order to indicate the gender. The definite article, nominative singular, is ó, , To, the; & is masculine, feminine, and To neuter; ¿, therefore, put before a noun, intimates that the noun is of the masculine gender;, that the noun is of the feminine gender; and 70, that it is of the neuter gender. If both ó and are put before a noun, it is done to show that the noun is of the common gender: thus, & armp, the man; yun, the woman; To epyov, the work; ó, ǹ, Oeos, the (male or female) divinity; d, n, mais, the child, whether boy or girl. one object, it is in the singular number; if a noun denotes more obiects than one, it is in the plural number. The Greek tongue has a third number, called the dual (Latin duo, two), which denotes two objects; thus, Aoyos is a word (singular); Aoyot, words (plural); Aoyw, two words (dual); where os is the singular termination, of the plural termination, and w the dual termination. CASE. These terminations, os, o, w, undergo changes according to the relation in which they stand to a verb, to another noun, or to a preposition. Thus os may become ov, and o may become ous. Any word which is changed in form, to express a corresponding change in sense, is said to be inflected. Such inflexions or variations in the endings of nouns are termed cases. There are in Greek five cases, namely 1. The Nominative, the case of the subject; as, & Tатηр ypaper, the father writes. 2. The Genitive, the case indicative of origin, whence; as, ó TOV Tarpos vos, the father's son. 3. The Dative, the case indicative of place, where, and of the manner, and instrument; as, T тоν Tатроs vių, to the father's son. 4. The Accusative, the case of the object, or whither; as, ó Tатпр TOν vioν ayana, the father loves the son. 5. The Vocative, the case of invocation, or direct address; as, αγαπα, πάτερ, τον ύιον, father, love thy son. In Greek there is no ablative case; the functions of the ablative case are discharged, partly by the dative, and partly by the genitive. The nominative and the vocative are called recti, direct; the other cases are called obliqui, indirect. Substantives and adjectives of the neuter gender have the nominative, the accusative, and the vocative alike, in the singular, the plural, and the dual. The dual has only two case-endings; one for the nominative, accusative, and vocative, the other for the genitive and dative. DECLENSION. Ev, in. Declension is the classification of nouns and adjectives agreeably to the variations of their case-endings. There are, in Greek, three declensions; called severally, the first, the second, and the third declension. The learner will do well in regard to every noun and adjective, to ask himself, What is its nominagive? What is its case? What is its number? What is its gender? What is its declension ? For instance, τραπεζαις 13 from the nominative тpareja, a table, is in the plural number, dative case, feminine gender, and of the first declension. In order to practise and examine himself fully, he should also form Ava, up. or "go through" every noun, adjective, tense, mood, and indeed Eis, into. every word capable of declension or conjugation, according tons, toward. the several models or paradigms given in the successive lessons. THE ADJECTIVE. An adjective denotes a quality. This quality may be considered as being connected with, or as being in an object, as "the red rose;" or as ascribed to an object, as "the rose is red. In both cases the adjective in Greek, as in Latin, is made to agree in form, as well as in sense, with its noun. A change takes place in the adjective, conformably to the change in the signification, thus, a good man is ayatos armp, but a good woman is ayan yun. Observe the os of the masculine is for the feminine changed into n. Not only in gender, but in number and in case does the adjective in Greek, as in Latin, conform to its noun: e.g., dayaños aveρwños, Latin, bonus homo, the good man; & areparos et ayados, homo bonus est, the man is good; Kaλn Moura, pulchra Musa, the beautiful Muse; Movoσa EσTI Kaλn, Musa pulchra est, the Muse is beautiful; To каλоν eαр, pulchrum ver, the beautiful spring; To eaρ EσTI Kаλov, ver pulchrum est, the spring is beautiful. The adjective, then, like the substantive, has a threefold gender the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. But many adjectives, such as compound and derivative, have only two terminations; one for the masculine and feminine, and another for the neuter; e.g. :— Dative. Accusative. Ata, because of. Mera, with. Пapa, from. Пepi, concerning. Audi, around. ETI, on. Mera, amidst. Пapa, by, near (of rest). Пeρi, around. Пpos, at (of rest). 'Trо, under (of rest). Αμφι and Περι, about A glance at this table will show that the case which in any example a preposition is connected with, has much to do in modifying its signification. Only by constant practice can the exact meaning and application of the several prepositions be known. The Latin student will, in this list, recognise words with which he is familiar; thus ex is the Latin er; ev is the Latin in; po is the Latin pro; ano is the Latin ab; Tep is the Latin super; and uro is the Latin sub. Before I treat of the declension of nouns, I must give the definite article, as it is so intimately connected with nouns that the latter cannot well be set forth without the former; and as the article is often used as indicative of the gender of the noun. THE DEFINITE ARTICLE, 8, n, To, the. There is no form for the vocative the. cf or to the. . which is commonly used, is an interjerain The way to learn the artille (as well as the adjective is to repeat the parts first perpendicularly, d, TJO. TH. Tu, exe, azi wa mas may, 19 d. m, ma, unt you are perfectly familiar with the và la When you think you have mastered the task, ezanine proneed by web. What is She somaatne Kamias feminine Foter What is the nomina, same pizza 2016 ne pair, est, and when you have given 22 12v fra memory kone, soostis the book, to ascertain Fany was out the article in full Iz imi pare o pans to make yourself master Cena & Spela roman for this advice, since len o the main the same as the IT N ISIS LESSONS IN GREEK-IL W A B Fig. 77. D Mont Cenis, the trains go along a series of zigzags, which are really a succession of inclined planes, and thus the mountain chain is crossed. A driver, too, in driving a heavy load up a steep incline will frequently cross from side to side of the road, as he goes up a less steep incline, and thus spares the horses. How comes it, then, that this advantage is gained, and what proportion does the load bear to the power that raises it? We will try and solve these questions. Let A C represent a plane inclined at the angle CAB; W is a weight resting on the plane and fastened to a cord which passes over the pulley D, and is kept stretched by a power, P. The cord we will first suppose to be parallel to the surface of the plane, and the power therefore acts in this direction. Friction has, in practice, a great influence in a case like this; as, however, we shall speak about that shortly, we will neglect it now, and suppose that the plane is perfectly smooth, and that the weight is just kept in its position 4 by the action of P. We found in our third lesson that, if we i am well elitate draw a line, G E, downwards from G, the centre of gravity of W, and make it of such a length as to represent the weight of w, and then through E draw E F parallel to G D, and just long enough to meet the line G F, which is perpendicular to the surface of the plane, that then EF represents in magnitude the power P. We have, in fact, a triangle of forces, the three sides of which represent the three forces which act on the weight and keep it at rest. But the angles of the triangle E F G are equal to those of the triangle C B A. This is easily seen, for the angle EFG is equal to C B A, each being a right angle. GEF is also equal to AC B; for, if we continue E F till it meets BC, we shall have a parallelogram, and these will be opposite angles, and so must be equal; the third angles are equal too, since G F and E G are perpendicular to A c and A B. The angles of one triangle are equal, then, to those of the other, and therefore the sides of the triangle E F G bear the same proportion to one another that those of C B A do. Of this you can satisfy 7. yourself by actual measurement, and you will find the rule always hold good. The proper mode of proving it, you will learn from Euclid. 9. Tu fammer, you are not Md 2x number. - xx The three sides of A B C represent, then, the three forces which act on W; A C representing the weight, B C the power, and AB the resistance of the plane, or the part of the weight which is supported by it. Hence we see that if the incline be 1 foot in 20, a man in rolling a weight up will only have to support of it. We can easily arrive at this result in another way. Suppose a person wants to lift a weight of 200 pounds to a height of one foot, he will have to exert a force of that amount if he lift it straight up, and will then move it through just one foot. But if, instead of this, he moves it up this incline, when he has passed over one foot in length of its surface, he will only have raised it of a foot, and will have to move it over the whole twenty feet of the plane in order to raise it the one foot. That is, he will have to move it twenty times the space he would if he lifted it direct, and will therefore sustain only of the weight at any moment. Still, he must sustain this portion twenty times as long. This supplies us with another illustration of the law of virtual velocities which we explained in the last lesson. The general rule for the gain in the inclined plane when the power acts in a direction parallel to it, may be stated as follows:The power bears the same ratio to the weight it will sustain that the perpendicular elevation of the plane does to the length of its surface. If the power, instead of acting along the plane, acts at an angle to it, whether it be parallel with the base or in any other direction, as a K, we have merely to draw E H parallel to the line of action of the force, instead of parallel to the plane, and, as before, we shall obtain a triangle of forces, the three sides of which represent the three forces, and thus we can calculate the power required to support the weight. If we have two inclined planes meeting back to back, like the letter V inverted, and a weight resting on each, the weights being connected by a cord which passes over a fixed pulley at the summit, we can see, from this principle, that there will be equilibrium when the weights bear the same proportion to each other as the lengths of the inclines on which they rest: for it is clear that, the steeper the plane, the less is the portion of the resistance borne by it. If, for example, one incline is 15 inches long, and the other 21 inches, a weight of 5 pounds on the former will balance one of 7 pounds on the latter. For, supposing the vertical height of the summit to be 6 inches, the portion of the force of 5 pounds which acts downwards, and tends to raise the other, is of 5 pounds, which equals 2 pounds; while the portion of the other which acts downwards is of 7 pounds, which is also equal to 2 pounds. This system of two inclines is often used in mining districts, a train of loaded trucks running down from the pit's mouth to the staith, being made to drag a train of empty ones up the incline. Many familiar instances of the use of the inclined plane are met with every day, though they often escape notice, unless we are specially looking for them. Our knives, scissors, bradawls, chisels, needles, and nearly all cutting and piercing tools, act on this principle. Those immense blocks of stone placed across the top of upright pillars, which excite the surprise of all visitors to Stonehenge, are believed to have been raised in this way, by making an inclined plane and pushing them up on rollers. THE WEDGE. We pass on now to notice the wedge, which essentially consists of two inclined planes of small inclination placed with their bases one against the other. Sometimes one side only of the wedge is sloping, and it is then simply a movable inclined plane. In using this, it is so placed that it can only be moved in the direction of the length, and the weight to be raised is likewise prevented from moving in any direction except vertically. If pressure be applied to the head of the wedge, the weight will be raised. The gain is the same here as in the inclined plane. R Fig. 78. Ꭱ The wedge, however, usually consists of a triangular prism of steel, or some very hard substance, and is used as shown in Fig. 78. The point is inserted into a crack or opening, and the wedge is then driven, not by a constant pressure, but by a series of blows from a hammer, or some similar instrument. It is usual to consider the wedge as kept at rest by three forces--first, a pressure acting on the head of the wedge, and forcing it vertically downwards, as at P; secondly, the mutual resistance of it, and the obstacle which acts at right angles to the surface of the wedge, as at RR; and thirdly, the force which opposes the motion, and acts at right angles to the direction in which the object would move, as at c. As, however, the resistance to be overcome varies very much from moment to moment, both in direction and intensity, and as the force is usually supplied by impact or blows, and not by pressure, such calculations afford very little help towards determining the real gain. The other mechanical powers are usually employed in sustaining or raising a weight, or offering a continuous resistance; a continuous force is therefore used with them. In the wedge, the resistance to which it is applied is usually one which, when once overcome, is not again called into play. In splitting timber, for instance, when the wedge is driven in, the particles of timber are forced apart, their cohesion is overcome, and they do not So in dividing large stones, when once a crack has been made through them, no continued application of force is needed to keep them from re-uniting. When continuous force is required, the wedge having been driven forward is kept from slipping back by friction. join again. As, then, we cannot calculate the force generated by a blow, we must be content with the general statement that the smaller the angle of the wedge the greater is the power gained. THE SCREW. This is the last of the mechanical powers, and, like the wedge, acts on the principle of the inclined plane. If we stretch a cord so as to represent the slope of an inclined plane, and then, holding a ruler, or some cylindrical body, vertically, we roll up the cord upon it, we shall have a screw, the spiral line traced out by the cord being called its thread. It is easy to see that the thread has at every point the same inclination as the inclined plane, and that a particle in travelling up the screw will pass over the same distance as if it moved up the plane. A screw, then, is a cylinder with a spiral ridge raised upon it; this ridge is sometimes made with a square edge (Fig. 79 a), and then has more strength; but usually it is sharp, as seen in a common screw, and this way of making it reduces friction. To use the screw, it is necessary to have a hollow cylinder with a groove cut on the inside of it (Fig. 79 b), so that the thread of the screw (Fig. 79 c) exactly fits into it, and the screw will rise or fall according to which way it is turned. This hollow cylinder is called the nut or female screw. d Fig. 79. с It is evident that, if we are to gain any power, the nut must not be allowed to turn together with the screw; and hence we have different modes of using the screw, according beams of a house together, or to strain the wire of a fence, the as the screw itself or the nut is fixed. When used to fasten the screw is prevented from rotating, and the nut turned by a wrench; the screw is thus drawn forward, and the required strain applied. In a carpenter's vice, on the other hand, the nut is fixed, and the pressure applied by turning the screw. The gain is in each case just the same, the difference being merely one of convenience in applying it. Now we shall easily be able to see the amount of power gained. If a particle be placed at the point of a screw and prevented from turning with it, it will, after one revolution of the screw, have been raised through a distance equal to that between two threads of the screw, while any point in the circumference of the screw will have passed through a space equal surface of the screw, it will bear the same proportion to the to that circumference. If, then, the power be applied at the resistance that the distance between two threads of the screw does to its circumference. In practice, however, the power is nearly always applied at the extremity of a lever, as at d in Fig. 79 a, so that it becomes a combination of the lever and inclined plane. In a thumb-screw the flattened part acts as a lever, and when a screw is driven by a screwdriver we usually grasp it at the broadest part, and thus gain a leverage. More commonly, however, a long lever is put through the head of the screw. fundamental principle of virtual velocities. Hence, we have the In all such cases we can easily ascertain the gain from the following rule :-Measure the circumference of the circle de scribed by the power, and divide this of the screw; the result will be the by the distance between two threads mechanical gain. Thus, if the power describe a circle whose circumference is 10 feet, and the distance between two threads be inch, we have a gain of 10 feet divided by 3 inch, or 480. There is, however, a difficulty here. We cannot easily measure the actual space through which the power passes, nor can we calculate it with absolute accuracy. It is, however, usually ference as 3 times the diameter. ncar enough if we take the circumThe fraction is more exactly 3.14159, Fig. 80. but you may always use 3 without being far wrong. Thus, if the radius of a circle be 2 feet 6 inches, its diameter is 5 feet, and its circumference 3 times 5 feet, or about 15 feet 8 inches. We see then, now, how to work a question like the following:-In the screw of a bookbinder's press there are 3 threads to an inch, and a force of 1 pounds is applied to a lever 14 inches long. What force the books pressed with? The gain is 14 x 2 x 3 divide SNS IN ENGLISH.-XVI. SUFFIXES (continued). that will help more to form an English heart anal tiger with an easy curiosity, as Vand shed, si de menagerie of the Tower."-Burke, “Regi m the French menage, which is the origin are from the Latin manu, with the hand, sm, vinz te tame, to keep in order. », siis vich is formed the third person singular and the plural of nouns; as, I read, he reads; ship, When an apostrophe precedes the s, as in ase is intended-e.g., man's book; God's rmination derived from the Latin iscus, through sc, and the French esque, is found in grotesque and Grotesque means distorted, unnatural, and heterown the strange and extravagant figures which were takivi in the protius er crypts of the ancient Romans. ** Az hileons figure of their foes they drew, Noe lines, por looks, nor shades, nor colours true, And this gritesĝe design exposed to public view." Dryden. m, mumspue is that which makes a picture, or may enter into a Negre properly means what is done in the style and with the zi a parader, "—Stewart, "Philosophical Essays." Fs derval from the Latin ix, the feminine of or; as adjutor, . jutri, a female helper, converts masculine nouns malam di abbot, abbess; actor, actress; prince, princess. a verbal suffix, forming the second person singular of the spent trase, as read, readest. It finds corresponding terminaneas in the s of the Latin, as legis, thou readest; and the st of Saras bernst, thou burnest. This suffix is rapidly beobsolete, since the second person singular of the verb is • Trench "On the Study of Words," pp. 25, 26. |