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Brûler

43. O, o.-The o has, in French, three different sounds: short, Brûlot
as in cob; broad and prolonged, as in cord; and full, as in
coat.

The short sound, as in cob, is the most common one. The o has a broad and prolonged sound, as in cord, when followed by an r, thus-castor, encore, etc. The full sound, as in coat, is always given to the o when it has a circumflex accent over it. It is also full when final, as in coco, loto, etc., and when followed by a mute consonant, as in mot, dos, etc.

EXAMPLES OF THE SHORT SOUND.

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ENGLISH.
Cup.
Local.
Fashion.
Moral.

Cru

EXAMPLES.

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SECTION XIV.-PLAN OF THE EXERCISES IN COMPOSING
FRENCH.

Hitherto the student has been occupied exclusively in acquiring facts, forms, and principles, and in translating, by the aid of these, French into English, and again, English into French. Following still the plan of the work, let him now undertake the higher business of endeavouring to compose in French. With this intent, let him take some of the words given for this purpose in the following lists, and seek to incorporate them in sentences entirely his own. The words taken from the lists are to be used merely as things suggestive of thought. The form which, in any given case, the sentence may assume, should be determined by the models found in the sections preceding; for every sentence which the pupil has once mastered in the regular course of the sections, is, or should be, to him, a model on which he may at pleasure build other constructions of his own. Indeed, this constructing sentences according to models that is, shaping one's thoughts according to the forms and idioms peculiar to a foreign tongue-is the true and only secret of speaking and writing that language well. The pupil, therefore, as he passes along in the ordinary course of the sections, should frequently be found applying his knowledge in the way of actually composing independent sentences; and thus Roast-meat, he will soon acquire a facility and accuracy in the language, which is hardly otherwise attainable at all.

EXAMPLES OF THE BROAD, PROLONGED SOUND. FLFNCH. PRONUN ENGLISH. FRENCH. PRONUN. ENGLISH. Castor Kas-tor

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Flight.

Beaver.

Bittern.

Essor,
Port

Again.

Cord.

Es-sor
Por
Bord Bore
Corridor Kor-ree-dor

Port.
Shore.
Corridor.

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It must be acknowledged, however, that the English letter does not represent the correct sound of the French u, which is a combination of sounds not recognised in our language. Still, we must use it as the representative of the sound of the French u, for the want of a better one.

The following rule has also been given, and found usefulThe sound of the French u is based upon that of English e. Pronounce the English letter e as naturally as possible, observing at the same time the position of the internal organs of the mouth. Now keep these organs in the same position as nearly as possible, protrude the lips as if to whistle, drawing them nearly together at the same time, and then try to pronounce the English e again, which will give you the correct sound of the French

Practise often aloud, according to the directions of this rule, and geo・ will crown your efforts. The rule has never yet the correct sound of the French us in this

tod by the patient, persevering, and

LIST OF WORDS FOR EXERCISES IN COMPOSING. The words in the following lists are given as suggestive of thought. In conducting the exercise a particular word is selected, as relieur (bookbinder), and the student is required to compose a French sentence containing this term. He is duly notified that he is at liberty to take any thought suggested by the word, and to produce a sentence of any form found in any of the sections; regard being had all along to all the rules, notes, exceptions, etc., that may bear upon the case. Thus, adopting as a model the sentence, Votre marchand est bien obligeant (Sect. XVI., Résumé), or, Le Danois a-t-il quelques pommes? (Sect. XVII. 7), etc. etc., let him endeavour to produce others of the like kind.

A little practice will render the exercise both easy and in teresting. It will soon come to be easy to incorporate not only one, but two, three, or more of the words taken from the lists. 1. PROFESSIONS ET MÉTIERS.-PROFESSIONS AND TRADES. Acteur, m., actor.

Artiste, m., artist.

Apothicaire, m., apothecary.

Aumonier, m., chaplain.

Auteur, m., author.

Barbier, m., barber.
Bijoutier, m., jeweller.

Blanchisseuse, f., asherwoman.
Boucher, m., butcher.
Brasseur, m., tenner.
Brodeuse, f., embroiderer,
Charbonnier, m., ceniman.
Charlatan, m., quick.
Charretier, m., cartman.
Chaudronnier, m., eggersmith.
Chirurgien, m., surjeva,
Cordier, m., ropemaker,
Corroyeur, m., eurier,
Coutelier, m., cutler,
Couturière, f., seamster.
Couvreur, m., slater, tüler.
Curé, m., vicar.

Dentiste, m., dentist.

Drapier, m., draper.

Epicier, m., grocer.

Eccl siastique, m, claryzman.

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Fruitière, f., fruit-woman.
Gantier, m., glover.

Graveur, m., engraver.

Horloger, m., clock and watchmaker.
Instituteur, m., institutrice, f,

schoolmaster, mistress.
Imprimeur, m., printer.
Joaillier, m., jeweller.

Ma on, m., mason, bricklayer.`
Maitre d'école, m., schoo'master.
Manouvrier, m., day-labourer.
Marchand-de-chevaux, maquignon,
m., horse-dealer.
Maréchal ferrant, m., farrier,
shoeing-smith.

Marechal, m., blacksmith,
Moissonneur, m., reaper.
Musicien, m., musician.
Naturaliste, m., naturalist.
· Orateur, m., orator.

Orfevre, m., gold and silver smith.

| Pape, m., pope.

Patre, m., shepherd, herdsman.

Perruquier, m., hairdresser.

Philosophe, m., philosopher.

Poissonnier, m., poissonnière, f.,

fishmonger.

Prédicateur, m., preacher.

Fripier, m., a dealer in old clothes, Prêtre, m., priest,

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Ancêtres, m. pl., ancestors.
Arrière-petit-fils, m., great-grandson.
Bean-ils, m., son-in-law, step-son.
Beau-frère, m., brother-in-law.
Beau-pere, m., jather-in-law, step-
father.

Belle-fille, f., daughter-in-law, stepdaughter.

Belle-mere, f., mother-in-law, stepmother.

Belle-sœur, f., sister-in-law.
Bizaleul, m., great-grandfather.
Bra, f., daughter-in-law.
Descendants, pl., descendants.
Enfance, f., childhood.

Epoar, m., épouse, f., consort.

Famille, f., family.

Femme, f., woman, wife.
Fiançailles, f. pl., betrothal.

Fiancé, m., fiancée, f., betrothed.

Gendre, m., son-in-law.
Grand-père, m., grandfather.
Grand mère, f., grandmother.
Jeune homme, m., young man.
Jeune fille, f., young woman, girl.
Jeunesse, f., youth.
Jumeau, m., jumelle, f., tuin.
Marraine, f., godmother.
Mari, m., husband.
Naissance, f., birth.
Nourrice, f., nurse.

Nouveau marié, bridegroom.
Nouvelle, mariée, bride.

Orphelin, m., orpheline, f., orphan.
Parrain, m., godfather.
Petit-fils, grandson.
Petite-fille, granddaughter.
Veuf, m., widower.
Veuve, widow.

Vieillesse, f., old age.

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Autant de crayons que de plumes, As many pencils as pens.
Autant de science que de modestie, As much science as modesty.

3. The comparative of superiority is expressed by plus-que, more-than, before an adjective, an adverb, or a pronoun. Il est plus docile que son frère, He is more docile than his brother. Plus de que de, more-than, before a noun.

Flas de bonté que de jugement, More goodness than judgment.

4. The comparative of inferiority is expressed by pas si; pas sis; moins que, not so; not so; less-than, before an adjective, an adverb, or a personal pronoun.

Vous n'êtes pas si grand que votre You are not so tall as your sister. spur,

Il est moins poli que son cousin, He is less polite than his cousin.
Pas tant de; pas autant de; moins de que de, not so much,
or so many; less; fewer than, before a substantive, a demon-
strative, or possessive pronoun.

Il n'a pas tant de courage que de
patience,
Ila moins d'argent que de viande, He has less money than meat.

He has not so much courage as
patience.

5. Tont autant-que is used for quite as many-as; as much, just as much, or as many.

J'en ai tout autant que vous,

I have quite as many as you. RÉSUMÉ OF EXAMPLES.

Arez-vous autant de livres anglais, que de livres italiens?

Jen ai tout autant.

Have you as many English books as Italian books?

I have just as many.

J'ai autant de ceux-ci que de I have as many of these as of those.

ceux-là.

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1. Êtes-vous aussi content que votre frère? 2. Je suis aussi content que votre frère. 3. Votre père a-t-il autant de courage que de modestie? 4. Il a moins de modestie que de courage. 5. Le libraire a-t-il autant de manuscrits que d'estampes? 6. Il a plus de celles-ci que de ceux-là. 7. A-t-il autant d'amis que d'ennemis ? 8. Il a plus de ceux-ci que de ceux-là. 9. A-t-il autant de pain que de fromage? 10. Il a tout autant de celui

ci que de celui-là. 11. Le maréchal a-t-il plus de chevaux que votre frère ? 12. Il en a plus que mon père et plus que mon frère. 13. N'avez-vous pas froid? 14. Non, Monsieur, je n'ai pas froid, j'ai très chaud. 15. Avez-vous deux manteaux de drap? 16. J'en ai un de drap et un de velours bleu. 17. N'avezvous pas plus de verres que d'assiettes? 18. Nous en avons davantage.* 19. Le maréchal a-t-il plus de fer que d'acier ? 20. Il n'a pas autant de celui-ci que de celui-là. 21. Il a moins de celui-ci que de celui-là. 22. Les Hollandais ont-ils de beaux jardins? 23. Leurs jardins sont très beaux. 24. Les jardins des Italiens sont plus beaux que ceux des Espagnols.

EXERCISE 26.

1. Are you more attentive than your sister? 2. I am not so attentive as your brother. 3. Have you more courage than my brother? 4. I have quite as much. 5. Has the blacksmith as much money as iron? 6. He has more of the latter than of the former. (Sect. VIII. 5.) 7. Has he more modesty than the Spaniard? 8. He has more. 9. He has more than your friend's sister. 10. Are you not cold, Sir? 11. No, Sir, but I am afraid and sleepy. 12. Has the Dutchman more cheeso than the Italian? 13. He has more cheese and more money. 14. Have you as much English silk as Italian silk? 15. I have more of this than of that. 16. Who has more friends than the Spaniard? 17. Your friend has more. 18. Has the Spaniard as much of 20. Have we more silk cloaks than cloth cloaks? your money as of his ? 19. He has less of mine than of his. 21. We have more of these than of those. 22. Have you good cloaks? 23. Yes, Sir, I have good cloaks, good hats, and good leather shoes. 24. Have you more plates than dishes ? 25. I have not more plates than dishes, but I have more glasses than plates. 26. Are you not very cold? 27. No, Sir, I am neither cold nor warm. 28. Has your carpenter wood? 29. Yes, Sir, he has wood, money, cheese, and meat. 30. Who has more money than the carpenter? 31. The Dutchman has more. 32. Who has more engravings than books? 33. The bookseller has more of these than of those. 34. Are you as attentive as your friend? 35. I am more attentive than my friend.

LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-IV.
PARSING AND COMPOSITION.

BY parsing is meant the telling of the parts (pars, Latin, a part) of speech of which a composition consists. Parsing, besides assigning the parts of speech, states the condition in which the words are, and the relations in which they stand. In its complete form, parsing cannot be done until the student is acquainted with the entire grammar. But he may parse as he goes, and as far as he goes. Viewed in this light, parsing is a sort of practical review made by the student of what he has done at each step of his progress. Such a practice, if pursued to the end, leads to a system of complete parsing. And such a practice will greatly conduce to a thorough familiarity with the

*Davantage means more. It can never be placed before a noun. It may be used instead of plus at the end of a sentence.

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The savage

Baking, like all cooking, is a fruit of civilisation. knows of no preparation for his food; he eats everything raw, like the brutes; and accordingly he eats it like them, with brutal greediness. A proper diet is possible only when the food is prepared by art. Baking, therefore, and every other sort of cooking, is a far more important business than at first sight it appears to be. By baking we procure the most wholesome of all nutriment-that bread which, as a commor necessary of life, we daily ask of God in the most comprehensive of all prayers.

It may be useful to beginners to see the same thought expressed in simple propositions-that is, propositions or sentences, not having more than one subject and one object.

BAKING. The same in simple sentences.

Baking is a fruit of civilisation. Indeed, all cooking is a fruit of civilisation. The savage knows of no preparation for his food. The savage eats everything raw. The brutes eat everything raw. The brutes also eat with greediness. With similar greediness does the savage take his food. Art may be employed in preparing food. In a proper diet food is prepared by art. Baking, therefore, is an important business. Indeed, cooking in general is an important business. Cooking is thought to be important. Still more important in reality is baking. By baking we procure the most wholesome of all nutriment. By baking we obtain bread. Bread is a common necessary of We ask bread of God in the most life. We daily ask bread of God. comprehensive of all prayers.

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LESSONS IN PENMANSHIP.-VII.

OUR readers, who have accompanied us thus far in our lessons in Penmanship, finding that they are now beginning to form letters composed of the bottom-turn, the top-turn, and the topand-bottom tuin, with comparative ease, may be wishing to hasten on a little more rapidly, and to be trying their hand at writing capitals as well as the small letters. This is a laudable wish, without doubt, and one which will be gratified in due time; but, for the present, our learners must be content to advance slowly, remembering that slow progress is the surest and safest method of attaining proficiency in any art, as the pupil is thereby saved from the danger of hurrying on from one point to another, for the sake of novelty, before he is thoroughly grounded in the rudiments of the art that he is seeking to acquire. Many who now find themselves able to make a thick down-stroke of uniform breadth throughout, such as is found in the letter 1, would lose much of the facility with which they are now imi

tating the copies we have placed before them, if they tried to copy capital letters at this stage of their instruction. The reason is this, that the letters which the pupil has hitherto been copying consist, for the most part, of a straight stroke, while there is not a single capital letter that is not formed of sweeping curves, which cannot be made in a sufficiently graceful manner, unless the learner has obtained that pliancy of wrist, freedom of execution, and command over his pen, which can only be acquired by constant practice on the simpler letters. If he were now to try to trace out the curves, that form the letter A he would find that his hand would begin to shake, and his down-stroke be crooked and ragged throughout, owing to the change of direction in which he is compelled to turn his pen; and when he returned to the easier letters, he would further find that the check he has received had rendered him less able to write letters that he had previously formed with ease. For this reason we continue our copies in large text, as exhibited above.

LESSONS IN ARITHMETIC.-VII. ABRIDGED METHODS OF MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

(continued).

6. To divide by 10, or any power of 10.

If the dividend have more ciphers for its right-hand figures than occur in the power of 10 by which it is to be divided, we need only take away from it the number of ciphers in the divisor to obtain the quotient. Thus, 873000 divided by 100 and 1000 respectively, gives quotients 8730 and 873. But suppose that the dividend has no ciphers for its right-hand figures. Take, for instance, the case of 87346 divided by 100. Cut off the two right-hand figures-viz., 46-from the dividend; then 873 will be the quotient and 46 the remainder. This is evident by exhibiting the process analytically, thus:

87316 87300 + 46

= 873 × 100+ 46

Therefore 873 is the quotient, and 46 the remainder. The same rule applies to dividing by any power of 10. 7. Next, suppose the divisor to be not a power of 10, but to have ciphers for its extreme right-hand figures; for instance, to divide 2764 by 300. There being two ciphers in 300, cut off the two right-hand figures-viz., 64-from the dividend, and divide the 27 by 3; this gives 9, which will be the quotient, and the 64 will be the remainder. This is evident by exhibiting the process analytically, thus:

2764 2700 + 64

9 x 300 + 64

Therefore 9 is the quotient, and 64 the remainder.

300) 2964

9-264 remainder.

8. In this last case there is no remainder after dividing 27 by 3. But suppose we have 2964 to divide by 300:Proceeding as before, cutting off the 64 and dividing 29 by 3, we get a quotient 9 and a remainder 2. But evidently this remainder is in reality 2 hundreds, or 200; and therefore, since 64 is also left over, the whole remainder will be 264. Hence, in this case, any remainder which is left must be prefixed to the figures cut off, in order to give the whole remainder. The process is exhibited analytically as follows:

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Hence the quotient is 35, and the remainder 24483.
EXERCISE 13.

1. In one pound there are ten florins; how many pounds are there in 200 florins? In 340 florins? In 560 florins?

2. In one metre there are 100 centimetres; how many

11. To multiply by 5.-Annex 0 to the multiplicand, and divide by 2.

To divide by 5.-Multiply by 2 and cut off the last figure, half of which will be the remainder.

To multiply by 15.-Annex 0, and to the result add its half. To divide by 15.-Multiply by 2, cut off the last figure, and divide by 3; prefix the remainder so obtained to the figure cut off; half the number so formed will be the true remainder. EXAMPLE. To divide 327 by 15:

2 x 327 = 654 3) 65,4

21 quotient,

Leaving 2 as remainder from 65.

Putting this 2 before the figure cut off-viz., the 4-we get 24, which divided by 2 gives 12, the full remainder.

To multiply by 75.-Annex two ciphers to the dividend, and subtract from it its fourth part.

To divide by 75.-Multiply by 4, cut off two figures, and Place before the two figures cut off the remainder divide by 3. got by dividing by 3, and divide the number so obtained by 4; this will give the whole remainder. Thus, to divide 2351 by 75, we have

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1. Work the following sums in division by means of the artifices shown above :

1. 60355.

7. 3875125.

2. 32561 5.

3. 1256 15.

8. 1125 75. 9. 3825 225.

4. 350745.

10. 8450 5.

11. 432705.

12. 2673 35.

5. 2350 25. 6. 42340

25.

13. 7853 55. 14. 4860 25. 15. 9488025. 16. 25426 125. 17. 2876 ÷ 175. 18. 8250 275.

12. To multiply by a number represented by any number of nines repeated.

Annex as many ciphers to the multiplicand as there are nines in the multiplier, and from the number so formed subtract the original number. Thus, to find 49276 x 99 –

4927600 49276 subtract 4878324 Answer. EXERCISE 15.

1. Work the following examples in multiplication :1. 4791 x 99. | 2. 7301 x 999. 3. 6034 x 999. | 4. 463 × 9999. 13. To multiply in one line by a number expressed by two figures.

To the product of any figure in the multiplicand, multiplied metres are there in 65000 centimetres? In 765000 centimetres? by the units' figure of the multiplier, add the product got by

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4. How many vehicles at 70 pounds apiece, can you buy for 7350 pounds?

5. How many barrels will it take to pack 36800 pounds of pork, allowing 200 pounds to a barrel?

10. We do not go into a detailed explanation of the following artifices, which are often useful in performing calculations without writing, or in mental arithmetic, as it is called. The truth of them will readily be seen by any one who has mastered the previous processes, and their explanation will be a useful exercise for the student.

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