in the combined movements of armies or of kingdoms,—moral revolutions are generally accomplished by the painful labours, and the individual exertions of a comparative few, each operating in his limited sphere of action, and, though tending to the same end, yet almost always distinct in the application of the means. We cannot, therefore, in the latter as in the former case, trace the general outline of the progress, without entering into details of personal exertion, and for these we must refer to the accounts of the missionaries themselves. In consequence of the general attention which the exertions of the missionaries in India excited, on the renewal of the company's charter, the church of England establishment was extended to India, and a bishop appointed at Calcutta. The presbyterians also were allowed to erect a place of worship in that city, and a Dr Bryce was sent out by the church of Scotland to officiate as minister and representative of the national establishment. Various societies are now turning their attention to this interesting field of labour, and a season of knowledge seems evidently dawning on British India, if not on the whole of Eastern Asia. The natives have begun to read and reflect, and to compare their own system of religion and morals with that contained in the sacred scriptures, and the superior excellence of the latter is confessed by many who have not the fortitude openly to renounce caste, and embrace Christianity. Science and Literature.] The learning of Hindostan is a subject with which Europeans are but just commencing acquaintance. Few are qualified to give an account of it, much less to form a complete idea of it. "Wherever we direct our attention to Hindoo literature," says Jones, "the notion of infinity presents itself; and the longest life would not be sufficient for the perusal of nearly five hundred thousand stanzas in the Puránás, with a million, and more perhaps, in the Vedas, and other works." In Hindostan, the sciences seem to have arrived at greater perfection than the arts. In all the arts of calculation their accuracy has astonished Europeans. Of their progress in geometry, Dr Playfair gives the following remarkable instance: In the Ayeen Akbary, the proportion of the circumference of a circle to its diameter is said to be as 3927 to 1250,-a solution to obtain which arithmetically, in the simplest manner possible, he assures us would require the inscription of a polygon of 768 sides, and at least nine extractions of the square root, each extending to ten decimal places. The zodiac, according to the Brahmins, is divided into 27 constellations. The ecliptic, as in Europe, is divided into signs, degrees, and minutes. The places of the sun and moon are calculated from the time of their entrance into the moveable zodiac. This causes the beginning of the year, with regard to the seasons, continually to advance. In 24,000 years it returns to the same point. In their calculations they suppose S00 years to contain 292,207 days, which makes their year only 1' 53" longer than that of De la Caille,—a degree of accuracy which has not long been known even in Europe. In calculations respecting the motion of the moon, as in Europe, they use the cycle of 19 years. The most difficult particulars in the motion of this secondary planet are calculated with much precision. The apparent motion of the fixed stars eastwards is, by the Siamese tables, made to be only 4" too quick,—a calculation in which the celebrated Ptolemy made an error of no less than 14". The most celebrated of all the Indian astronomical tables, are those known by the name of the Tables of Tirvalore. If Dr Playfair's reasoning be just, the age of these tables is 4,905 years, corresponding to the year of the world 902. Whether this era-commonly known by the name of the Calyougham be a real era, ascertained by the actual observation of the places of the heavenly bodies at that time, or an imaginary period, discovered by calculating backwards, has excited among astronomers much altercation. Playfair is decidedly of opinion, that the Calyougham was ascertained by the actual observation of the state of the heavenly bodies at that precise period. Others, however, hold a very different opinion, and their reasoning appears completely to overthrow the arguments of Playfair upon the great antiquity of Indian astronomy. Amongst these, Marsden in the Philosophical Transactions, and after him, Bentley in the Asiatic Researches, hold the first rank. We do not mean to follow the arguments on either side, as these are foreign to a work of this nature, and can be interesting only to the scientific reader, whom we refer to the works already mentioned. Suffice it to say, that Bentley has shown, in a very clear manner, that the Surya Siddhánta, the most ancient of all the astronomical performances of the Hindoos, and to which the Indian astronomers assign the ridiculous antiquity of 2,164,900 years, cannot be more ancient than the beginning of the 8th century, and that the celebrated tables of Tirvalore, which the Hindoos, and after them, Playfair, assert were compiled from actual observation in the year of the world 902, have, in reality, only been written and dated 516 years ago. There is indeed one argument against the antiquity of Indian astronomy which is unanswerable, and therefore another is not necessary. The assigned era of the Calyougham extends to a period beyond the deluge; and, as we know that all men were then destroyed, we must suppose, either that the Indian tables were formed since that period, or that Noah had a copy of them with him in the ark, and, that after the confusion of languages, they were sent into Hindostan to be translated into the Sanscrit. Jones discovers among the philosophers of Hindostan sects corresponding in their tenets to the Peripatetics, the Platonists, the Stoics, and the disciples of the Ionic and Italic schools: man, it must be owned, often follows the same path of inquiry in the most distant parts of the world; but it is difficult not to imagine that the fundamental doctrines of these various sects were originally borrowed from their eastern instruc tors. Poetry has existed in India from the earliest ages, and has assumed both the epic and dramatic forms; but, though the ideas are often sublime, they are too frequently turgid, and swell into that inflated diction which is equally contrary to genuine poetry and to good sense. Painting and sculpture are in a state still inferior to that of their poetry. The Hindoos appear to be ignorant of the rules of perspective, and their drawing is in general deficient. In colouring they are greater proficients. Their sculpture is rude, and said to have some resemblance to that of the ancient Egyptians; by some it is asserted to be much more elegant. Like the architecture of that people, too, their buildings are calculated to strike rather by magnitude than elegance; they are large, and abound in pillars, but have no pretensions to an order, and are deficient in proportion. The music of Hindostan is represented as still remaining in an imperfect state. Melody seems to be more studied than harmony; and many of the simple airs are pleasant even to an European ear. Their musical instruments are numerous; among the rest, they have several kinds of drums. Arts.] The use of powder and of fire-arms was known in the East long before it was discovered in Europe, but the precise date of the discovery is unknown. Fire-works of different kinds have long made part of the amusement of many eastern countries; and in the construction of these, they equal, if they do not excel the most dexterous of Europeans. The pottery of the Hindoos is rude and coarse; in any thing, however, that merely requires handling the Hindoos excel. Some of their embroidered leather is very rich, and their cabinet-work is tastefully inlaid and painted. In the north of India Proper a very fine paper is made from the inner bark of a tree. Glass-making is understood and practised. The ingenuity of the Hindoos in several of the mechanical arts and manufactures has long been celebrated. Their tools and implements, however, are simple in the extreme, and to Europeans they appear very imperfect. The instruments of weaving in India are now precisely of the same construction as they were two thousand years ago. The Indians still spin their yarn, warp as well as weft, with distaff and spindle; and the loom upon which the cloth is woven is composed of a few sticks or reeds; and, when it is in operation, it is placed under the shade of a tamarind or mango-tree, with the balance fastened to one of the branches. Two loops underneath the gear, in which the weaver inserts his great toes, serve as treadles; and the shuttle, formed like a netting-needle, but of a length exceeding the breadth of the cloth, is used alternately to draw through the weft and to strike it up into the web. The loom has no beam; the warp is laid upon the ground, the whole length of the piece of cloth, and upon this primitive machine, the Asiatics produce muslins, which have long been subjects of admiration for their beauty and the fineness of their texture. It may be very gravely questioned, whether during the last thousand years the whole native intellect of India has contrived a single machine or tool for the effecting of any native purpose. The Hindoos are exceedingly skilful in the practice of those juggling arts of which the chief object is to deceive the senses. The art of handling serpents without being hurt by them is well known to the Hindoos. The Egyptians affirm that they are prevented from being hurt by washing themselves in the infusion of a certain herb; the Hindoos ascribe the same effects to certain incantations; of the two, the cause assigned by the Egyptians has the greater resemblance of truth, but a cause more probable than either, is the extraction of the fangs of the serpent, or those peculiar hollow teeth, through which alone the poison is ejected. Languages.] The original language of Hindostan seems to have been the Sanscrit, a language now found only in books, and understood only by the learned. Jones assures us that it is, in every respect, a refined speech, and more perfect even than the Greek. It answers nearly the same purpose in India that Latin did in Europe during the middle ages, being the principal vehicle of religion, law, science, and literature. The languages now spoken in Hindostan are numerous; but it is generally believed that they are all derived from the Sanscrit. Of these languages, or rather dialects, Wesdin enumerates the following ten : 1. The Cingalese, spoken at Candy in the island of Ceylon, said to have a close resemblance to the Sanscrit. 2. The Tamul, spoken in almost every part of the Deccan. Wesdin assures us that this dialect is harmonious, and easily acquired. The central parts of the Deccan use the Mahratta. 3. The Malabar language, spoken from Cape Comorin to the Illi mountain. It has several alpha bets. 13 The following quotation is said to be a stanza from the Yujarveda, and may serve as a specimen of the Sanscrit:- Natrato súryo bháti nacha chandra táracau, némá vidyutó bhánti cuta éra vahnih: tameva bhántam anubháti servam, tasya bhása servamidam vibháti.' There the sun shines not, nor the moon and stars; the lightnings flash not in that place; how should even fire blaze there? God irradiates all this bright substance; and by its effulgence the universe is enlightened.' 4. The Canaree, or language of Canara, which is extensively spoken throughout Mysore and as far as Goa. 5. The Marashda, or Maharatta language, spoken by the Maharattas, whom Wesdin assures us we should call Marashdi. 6. The Telinga, or Talinga, an harmonious, nervous, masculine, copious, and learned language, which, like the Sanscrit, has 52 characters, and these are sufficient to write the latter. It is spoken on the coast of Orissa, in Golconda, on the river Krishna, and as far inland as the mountains of Balaghaut. All these languages have their own alphabets; so that in every province you must make yourself acquainted with a distinct kind of character, if you wish to express your thoughts in the dia lect common to each. 7. The common Bengalee, or Gaura language,—a wretched dialect, corrupted in the utmost degree. It has no V, and instead of it, uses the B; so that instead of Veda, you must write Beda. It is spoken at Calcutta, and generally over Bengal on the banks of the Ganges. 8. The Dewanagaree, or Hindustanee language,-called by some Nagru, Nagari, and also Davane. gari. It is spoken at Benares, and has 52 characters, with which you can write the Sanscrit. Its mode of writing has been introduced into all the northern part of India. 9. The Guzaratic, which has been introduced not only into the kingdom of Gujerat, but also at Baroche, Surat, Tatta, and the neighbourhood of the Balaghaut mountains. Its characters are little different from those of the Devangaric. 10. The Nepaulic, which is spoken in the kingdom of Nepaul, and has a great similarity to the Devangaric. There is a language called Pracrit still spoken among the Sikhs to the N. W. of Delhi, which Mr Colebrooke identifies with the vernacular Sanscrit. The Serampore missionaries calculate that the Hindustanee, the Maharatta, the Bengalee, and the Orissa (the vernacular dialects of Central India) are spoken by upwards of 50,000,000. Education.] The Hindoos imagine that a literary education, instead of being useful, is hurtful to a woman, by diverting her attention from the care of her household. Female education, therefore, seldom extends farther than to the simplest precepts of religion, and those domestic duties which are afterwards to become necessary. On the education of boys more care is bestowed. They are taught to read and write by the Brahmins, who are the only schoolmasters. The leaves of the palm are used for paper; and a pointed iron instrument in place of a pen. These leaves are not apt to decay; nor are the letters formed upon them easily effaced; and to make the impression more strong, a black powder is rubbed upon the characters. The palm-leaves are cut in long pieces, an inch in breadth, and a number of these, fastened together by the ends, form a book. Sometimes they write on a kind of paper; and then for a pen they make use of a small reed. Beginners form their characters in sand strewed on the floor. The rules of calculation are performed with small stones. Still, however, the ignorance into which the vast population of this country is yet sunk is extremely affecting. On this subject we extract some impressive remarks from the Hints' of the Serampore missionaries :"Not only are the people, in general, destitute of every just idea of God; but they can scarcely be said to be fully impressed with the importance of a single principle of morality. They have no just idea of the objects of nature so constantly before them-of the sun, moon, and stars-of the clouds, the winds, the rains-of the earth, on which they dwell-of the groves, trees, and plants, which surround them-of the domestic animals, which they nourish; nor, in a word, of the flowing stream, the buzzing insect, or of the plant which creeps over their lowly shed. To them the sun retires behind a mountain; the rain from heaven is given by a god whom they are in the habit of despising and vilifying; the rainbow is the bow of Rama; the river is a deity; the birds, the beasts, and even the reptiles around them are animated by the souls of their deceased relatives. Falsehood and uncleanness are nothing; perjury a trifle; and a failure in fidelity and probity, often a subject of praise: while ablution in the waters of a river is deemed a due atonement for almost every breach of morality. The wretched schools which they have in their towns and villages are so IV. 3 R few, that, on the average, scarcely one man in a hundred will be found who can read a common letter. Printed books they have none, unless a copy of some book of the scriptures should have found its way among them and, as to manuscripts, they have scarcely one in prose; but, if they possessed a multitude, their ignorance of their own language would render the perusal of an inaccurate and ill-written manuscript too formidable a task to be often attempted. Thus, with a regular and copious language of their own, nearly all who are ignorant of Sanscrit (which is not understood by one in ten thousand throughout India) are in a state of ignorance not greatly exceeded by that of those savage hordes which have no written language; while numerous causes combine to sink them far below most savage nations, in vice and immorality. Add to this, that their knowledge of arithmetic is scarcely less wretched. What avails their possessing treatises in Sanscrit, both on arithmetic and geometry? From these the common people derive about as much advantage as though they were written in Chinese. Hence, though some of them, through long habit, are expert in calculation, (as is the case with many in England unacquainted with a single rule of arithmetic,) at school they learn even the four fundamental rules in so wretched a manner, that an English boy of eight years old would, in a few minutes, resolve a question in multiplication or division, the solving of which would cost them an expense of time scarcely to be credited." Sanscrit College.] The Goverment Sanscrit college at Calcutta, was established in 1821, and is largely endowed. The course of study in this college comprehends grammar, general literature, rhetoric and prosody, law, and logic, and natural and experimental philosophy. A proficiency in the English language is an indispensable qualification for admission to the highest class. Conformably to the ancient practice of the Hindoos, a portion of the college funds is assigned to defray stipends to 100 students who are either strangers or indigent. Mahommedan College] The Madrissa or Mahommedan college, for the study of the Arabic or Persian languages and Mahommedan law, was founded in 1780, by Mr Hastings, and is also largely endowed by the government. It is rising into vigour, reputation, and usefulness. There are 85 students on the foundation, besides out-students, the number of whom is unlimited. The course of education comprises the Arabic and Persian languages, general literature, law, philosophy of law, traditions of Mahommed, rhetoric, logic, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, according to the British system; to which may be added the regulations of the British government. An English class has recently been established, and a learned native is employed in translating English works of science into Persian and Arabic. It has been determined to establish a college for Mahommedans at Delhi; the arrangements for which have received the sanction of government, and are in progress. Committee of Public Instruction.] In addition to these two institutions, the government, in 1823, adopted a measure calculated to give a powerful impulse as well as a judicious direction to the ardour felt by all ranks of their servants in promoting education among the Hindoos. This was the formation of a Committee of Public Instruction, of which Mr Harington, whose benevolent efforts in the cause of native education is wellknown, was appointed president. The other members have been selected from the most enlightened servants of the Company, and those best acquainted with the native languages and habits. After ascertaining the |