Basins.] The Caucasian chain offers thirteen principal basins to the notice of the physical geographer. Seven of these belong to the northern, and 6 to the southern side. But without entering on these details, we shall proceed to describe this chain under three great divisions: viz. the Western, Central, and Eastern Caucasus.

Western Caucasus.] The western portion of the Caucasian chain may be considered as extending from the Black sea to the upper part of the courses of the Rioni and Kouban: their eastern front being the lofty summit of the Elboors, which, according to the observations of M. Vichneoski, rises to the height of 2,783 toises, or 17,832 English feet, above the level of the sea. From the northern, or Georgian side, of this part of the chain, the following rivers descend: viz. the Atakoum, the KaraKouban, the Chagwacha, the Laba, the Ouroup, the Great and the Little Zeleutchouk or Indjik, the Koiden, and the Teberde. From the southern, or Great Abassian and Mingrelian side, the following rivers descend: viz. the Soubachi, the Kapoeti, the Moutsi, the Zoupi, the Alatso, the Sokhoumi, the Khodori, the Marmari, the Mokvi, the Egrisi, the Dadi, and the Egouri. The principal defiles of the Western Caucasus occur at the sources of the Chagwacha, the great Laba, and the Teberde. The first, or the most western, establishes a communication betwixt the valley of Chagwacha and the Abassian port of Sokhoum-kalah. The second leads to the villages of Mokvi and Khodori. The western branch of the third leads through the territory of the Souanes to Bedia on the Egrisi ; the eastern branch of this pass descends to the sources of the Tskhenistzquali, from which it leads into Imeritia and Mingrelia. From the Elboors, and along the right bank of the Kouban, a branch runs northward from this chain, presenting various isolated summits, such as the Soistoun and those of the Temnoi-less.

Central Caucasus.] The second part of the principal Caucasian chain commences at the foot of Mount Elboors under the name of the Snowy Mountains. It runs E. to a culminating point from which the Sundsha and Aksai flow towards the N., the Khaeserouk and Quozloukhi to the E., and the Alazan and Yori to the S. Here the chain is remarkably rugged, and surmounted with glaciers. At the sources of the Dchinaghi-don this chain changes its direction, and runs S. S. E. under the Georgian name of Kedela, or the wall,' to the sources of the Ratchis-tzquali and the Kuirili. From this latter point it takes an eastern direction, and runs to join the gigantic Khokhi which rises above the sources of the Terek. This third section, or subdivision, of the central chain is called Brouts-sabdzeli or Sekara. From the Khokhi it goes S. E. to the sources of the Aragoi, where it forms the Cross mountain. It then bends again towards the E., separates the tributary waters of the Terek and Sundsha from those of the Aragoi and Alazan, and reaches its ultimate point at the head of the valleys inhabited by the Meesti, the Pharsmani, and the Thoucheti. The regions situated to the N. of the Central Caucasus are: the Little Abassia, Ossetia, the territory of the Mitsdjegi, and the two Kabardahs. On the opposite side are Imeritia, and Kartli or Kartalinia. The rivers which flow from the northern side of Central Caucasus are: the Kouma, the Podkoumka, the Malka, the Bakzan, the Tcheghem, the Tcherek, the Ouroukh, the Arredon, the Fiag, the Sundsha, and the Aksai. From the S. side descend the Rioni, the Tskhenis-tzquali and Kuirili, the Didi-liakhoi, the Khasani, and the Araghoi. To this portion of the chain belong: the Kachka-tau, the Lagal, the Mqinvari, elevated 15,400 feet, the Kouro,

the Ouloumba, the Asmis-mtha, and the Lordsobani summits.

There are 7 passes leading through this part of the chain, the two principal of which lead along the tributary torrents of the Ouroukh, from the Imeritian province of Ratcha, into the country of the Dongars, and thence through the valleys of the Rioni and Bokoi into Circassia. The Porta Caucasia of the ancients is the defile which leads through this chain from Mosdok to Tiflis. It is the narrow valley of four days journey through which, according to Strabo, the river Aragon, now called Arakvi, flows. It is, as Pliny calls it, an enormous work of Nature, which has here cut out a long opening among the rocks which an iron-gate would be almost sufficient to close. By this passage, according to Priscus, the barbarous Medes, Sarmatians, and other tribes, threatened both the Roman and the Persian empire. The Russians keep a strong garrison at Vlady-Kaukaz the key to this defile.

Eastern Caucasus.] The Eastern Caucasus extends to the peninsula of Apcheron, its general direction being from N. W. to S. E. The western portion of it, as far as Gatton-koul, on the S. bank of the Samoru, is generally regarded as forming a part of the snowy mountains; but it is much less elevated. From this point a high chain of glaciers called Chahdagh, or Chat-dag, run towards the Kouba, on the western side of which river we encounter mount Chalboors or Chah-Alboors. The principal summits which occur to the E. of Chalboors are: the Salavat-dagh, the Baha-dagh, the Kaler-dagh, and the Belira-dagh,-all granitic summits. To the W. of the latter summit the elevation of the mountain is from 1,666 toises, or 10,674 English feet, to 2000 toises or 12,816 feet. Towards the E. they gradually decline until they reach the peninsula of Apcheron where they are of very trifling elevation. In the upper basin of the Samoru, or Qozloukhi, and in that of the Koizou and Atala, are the countries of the Kazi-Kumuks, and Avares, and the republic of Akoucha. The other northern regions bathed by the Caspian are comprehended under the general name of Daghestan. The united basins of the Alazan and Yori, in the opposite quarter, form the district of Kakhetia. The tributaries of the Kur also flow on this side through Western Shirwan. The passes through the Eastern Caucasus are yet very imperfectly known to European geographers.

Geology and Scenery.] The summits and central ridge of Caucasus are granitic. On each side the granite has schistose mountains joining it, and these are succeeded by calcareous mountains which appear to occupy most space on the southern side, where the chain is extended by a greater number of branches. On the northern side, the base of the calcareous and schistose mountains is covered by vast sandy downs or plains. The following is M. Klaproth's description of the scenery in the principal chain of mountains, or the Alps of the Caucasus :-" At the foot of the snowy summits are found human habitations, which the owners have been tempted to construct in that situation, by a few acres of ground susceptible of cultivation. In the valleys which separate these snowy mountains, glaciers are seen, which seem to recline upon blocks of ice and rock. The valleys are closed in at their superior extremities, by huge pieces of ice interlaid like the strata of rocks, seeming to owe their origin to ice-water from the summits, congealed anew. These frozen masses are supported by arcades of ice, over which torrents are heard rushing with fearful noise, by the traveller journeying beneath the vaults. Descending from the glaciers, we fall in with fields of snow spread out on beds of ice. Granite and schistus,

intersected frequently by basalts, are seen contiguous to other rocks of the black tabulary schistus, and rising in sharp and naked peaks, separated by deep ravines, ascend to the region of snow and perpetual ice. Torrents rush through these ravines,—on the banks of which are found a few pines, junipers, and other trees peculiar to the frozen zone."

Productions.] We find here every climate of Europe, and every kind of soil; the productions therefore of Caucasus are highly varied. "In the centre," says Malte Brun, “ we have eternal ice and barren rocks, inhabited by bears and wolves, also by jackals; chaus, an animal of the genus Felis; the wild goat of the Caucasus, (Caprica Caucasica,) which delights in the rugged summits of the schistose mountains; the chamois, which, on the contrary, prefers the lower calcareous mountains; hares, weasels, polecats, ermines, argalis, and an infinite number of birds of prey, and of passage. To the north are hills fertile in corn, and rich pastures where the fine Circassian horses are bred. Farther on are sandy plains, covered with large plants, but mixed with low grounds of a more clayey soil. To the south you find magnificent valleys and plains, under a more salubrious climate, displaying all the luxuriance of an Asiatic vegetation. Wherever the declivity inclines towards the west, the east, or the south, cedars, cypresses, savins, red junipers, beech-trees, and oaks, clothe the sides of the mountains. The almond, the peach, and the fig, grow in abundance in the warmer valleys, sheltered by the rocks. The quince, the wild apricot, the willow-leaved pear tree, and the vine, abound in the thickets and woods, and on the borders of the forests. The date-tree, the jujuba, and Christ's thorn, are indigenous in this country, and prove the mildness of the temperature. The low marshy grounds are adorned with very fine plants, such as the rhododendron ponticum, and the azalea pontica. The cultivated and wild olive-trees, the oriental plane, together with the male and female laurels, embellish the coasts of the Caspian sea. The high valleys are perfumed by the syringa, the jessamine, several species of lilies, and the Caucasian rose."

The

Caucasian Tribes.] The Caucasian isthmus contains an extraordinary number of small nations and tribes. Some are the remains of Asiatic hordes which, in the great migrations, passed and repassed these mountains; but the greater numbers are indigenous and primitive tribes. The Georgians and the Ossetes are the new inhabitants of this territory. The former came from the Pampaki valleys between the Caucasus and Ararat.. The Ossetes are said to be the descendants of a Scythian colony which was established here about 7 centuries before the Christian era. Basianes are a Turkish tribe from Madjari and the banks of the Kuma. They at present inhabit the upper valleys of the Malka, the Tcheghem, and the Tcherek, and are supposed to have quitted their primitive abodes in the 8th century before the Christian era. The primitive Caucasians are: 1st, the Eastern Caucasians or Lesghiers; 2d, the Mizdsheges in the centre; and 3d, the Western Caucasians,-or Circassians and Abasses. In the following list we have distinguished the nations and countries included in the Russian territories by an R, and the states which yet preserve their independence by an I.

R. I. Great Abassia

R. I. The Trans-Koubanian Circassians

Great and Little Kabardah

Number of houses

50,000

35,000

13,500

R. I. Independent and Georgian Ossetia

30,000

R. The country of the Khevsouri, Pchavi, and Touchi 2,300

I.

The Lesghiers of Avar, Andi, &c.

20,000

I.

The republic of Kazi-Kumuk, and other districts

on the Samoura

30,000

R.

The country of the Tchari, Belakani, &c.

8,000

I.

The republic of Dido

5,000

R.

Georgia N. of the Kur

20,000

R. Imeritia

35,000

R. Mingrelia

Counting 5 individuals to a house, the total population of the Caucasian territories will thus amount to 2,353,820 souls. Of this number onefourth are free,—and the rest are subjects of the Czar.

Uralian Mountains.] The Ural, or Uralian mountains rise under 68° N. lat. at the Karskai gulf, or, according to some geographers, in Nova Zembla, and run from N. to S. with a declination westwards. Possessing but little elevation at the N. end, between the Lower Obi on the E., and the Oosa, a branch of the Petschora, on the W., they acquire a considerable height about the 60th or 58th parallel near Solikamsk and Werchoturia. In the latitude of Ekaterineburg they become low and flat; but acquire a new elevation in the country of the Baschkirs, in latitude 54o and Several of the summits of the Werchoturian mountains are covered with perpetual snow, and the Pawdinskoe Kamen rises to the height of On the whole the Ural forms 6,819 feet above the level of the Caspian.

55o.

a plateau of about 1,200 miles in extent, and from 4,000 to 5,000 feet in height, on which mountains rise to the height of 1,000 and 2,000 feet. We have already described the structure of the northern part of this chain belonging to European Russia. The Russians divide the Asiatic portion into three parts, viz. 1st, The Werchoturian Ural extending between 61° and 57° 30′ N. lat.; 2d, The Ekaterineburg Ural, from 57° 30' to 56° N. lat.; and 3d, The Baschkirian Ural, from 56° to 53° 30′ N. lat. Here granite makes its appearance everywhere in massive strata; and iron is abundant. The Baschkirian Ural is rich in gold. The Ural range throws off various small chains at its southern extremity. The mountains

of Guberlinski detach themselves under the parallel of 53' 30, and join, on the E. side, the mountains of the Kirghissian steppes. The Kitschik Karatscha, or eastern branch of the Ural, runs off under 54° 45′ N. lat. The Obtsche-Syrt passes into Europe.

The Little Altai.] This lower terrace of the Great Altai, already described, is sometimes called the Bieloi, or snowy tops.' It runs from S.W. to N.E.. It extends from the river Irtysh to the Yenisei, allowing the Dshabekan, which is the head-source of the Obi, to pass across a narrow gorge. On the S. a wide plateau separates it from the Great Altai; and on the N. a valley comes between it and the metallic mountains of Kolyvan. These latter mountains sink towards the N. into the steppe of Baraba. The heights which follow the Obi on its left to its junction with the Irtysh are called the Oorman. Between the Obi, and the Yenisei are the mountains of Koutznetz. The mountains of Sajansk stretch from the Yenisei to the Lena and Lake Baikal. They are rather an elevated plateau than a chain. The mean height of the Little Altai is from 1,600 to 2,400 feet above the subjacent plains. The southern parts present groups of trees,—the northern regions are covered with constant snow. The first plateaus are schistose and granitic. In the neighbourhood of Tcharich and Tom immense rocks of beautiful porphyry and jasper occur. Along the course of the Tom and the Upper Ina volcanic indications have been traced. The Baikalian Mountains.] The Baikal mountains appear to be an arm of the Sajanian chain. They enclose a valley of great elevation, in which the Lake Baikal extends its deep waters over a basin of rock with scarcely any sand. On the N. and W. sides of the lake the mountains are very lofty, and seem to be principally composed of granite.

The Daourian Chains.] A link of the Baikal mountains passes to the S. of the Onon, and along the Argoon. It is called the Nertschinsk mountains. Another chain running N.E., and separating the tributary streams of the Lena and Amoor, receives the general designation of the Daourian mountains. A little to the W. of the sources of the Olekma the chain takes the name of the Iblannoi mountain, or the mountain of apples,' on account of the rounded shape of the blocks composing it. Acquiring increased elevation as it approaches the Eastern ocean, it begins at the sources of the Aldan to bear the name of the Stannovoi mountains, which afterwards gives place to the vague denomination of the mountains of Okhotsk, which are said to reach Behring's straits.

Mountains of Kamtschatka.] The mountains of Kamtschatka are covered with perpetual snow, and at the same time full of volcanoes which seem to be connected with those of the Japanese sea. They divide the peninsula longitudinally, and may be regarded as connected with the Kurile islands.

M. Humboldt's Observations.] M. Humboldt and a party of Russian sa vans, during a tour in Siberia in 1829, have made many important physical and geognostical observations on the different mountain-regions which we have just been describing. The extracts of a letter from one of the party-which we subjoin in a note-will be read with interest, as present. ing the earliest accounts of this important expedition."

2 "After traversing the northern Ural mountains, from Ekaterineburg to the 60th degree of N. latitude, we hastened to Tobolsk, the capital of Western Siberia. The ease with which travelling is performed in Siberia, and with which immense tracts may be passed, induced M. Humboldt to extend our journey, without protracting the time employed in it, by making a detour of nearly 500 German (above 2,400 English) miles, to visit the Altai chain and the celebrated silver-mines of Kolivan, and at the same time