lies perpetually, this region, from Ispahan to Candahar, experiences very hot summers and excessively cold winters. In summer, the atmosphere is excessively heated by the reflection of the solar rays from the burning sand and naked rocks. The Persians deem the climate of Ispahan exceedingly healthy; but this salubrity is merely comparative; at the commencement of autumn, when the heat has nearly attained its maximum, its consequences are often fatal, for fevers then commence and often carry off immense numbers. The heats of Teheraun are insupportable in summer, and the whole court and most of the inhabitants abandon the place during this season for cooler retreats. In the plain of Hamadan, on the contrary, the heat is moderate, never rising above 80° in the shade in the hottest period of the year. But this plain is very elevated and well-watered and wooded. In other elevated situations, as Sutanuah, Gutuppeh, and Aukhend, the temperature of summer is moderate, the temperature not rising above 75o in the shade during the hottest time of the day. Farsistaun, particularly the vale of Sheerauz, has been represented as free from excessive and rigorous colds; but this is not strictly true, for, during the winter months, rain and hail, frost and snow, visit the plain of Persepolis; and Le Bruyne himself, when engaged in exploring the ruins of Persepolis, was unable for some time to prosecute his researches, and compelled to take the shelter of a house. Scarcely a day in winter passes without some person being frozen dead in the vicinity of the towns, One great cause of this frequent catastrophe is the practice, universally followed and rigidly enforced, of shutting the gates of all cities and towns a little after sunset, and re-opening them at sunrise; and, if any arrive after the gates are shut, they must stay without all night whatever be the consequence. Rainbows are seldom seen in Central Persia, because the air is too dry and pure. The serenity and purity of their cloudless atmosphere is, indeed, the greatest blessing the natives enjoy; the sky being so clear at night, travellers can journey all night, and thus avoid the excessive heat of the solar rays so insupportable during the day. The third climate is that of the Gurmseer, a hot low region that skirts the Persian gulf and the lower basin of the Tigris. Here the samiel often kills the unwary and imprudent traveller. At Busheer, the heat is excessive, the thermometer ranging from 87° at sunrise to 98° in the shade at midday, and generally standing at 90° during the night. The whole southern coast of Persia is burnt up and barren, presenting nothing to view but brown sand, grey rocks, and hardened clay. In Ahmedee, in the Dashtistan, between Busheer and Sheerauz, or rather the flat between Busheer and the first range of mountains, the thermometer stood at 125° in the shade, and the heat almost amounted to suffocation, when the late Henry Martin, the missionary, and Messrs Lockett and Taylor were there in 1811. One of them wrapped himelf round in a wet sheet, whilst another covered himself with his mattress, by which different means they were much relieved.

Soil and Productions.] From what has been stated respecting the aspects of Persia, its numerous naked mountains, extensive deserts, and scarcity of water, it may be easily inferred that the proportion of good soil in Persia is exceedingly small; and even of what arable land exists one-twentieth part is not cultivated. In ancient days, the province of Susiana was a rich fertile province, but it is now scarcely distinguishable from the neighbouring deserts. Farsistaun was once well-wooded; but though much has been said of the fertility and beauty of the plain of Sheerauz, later travellers, as Fraser and others, declare it to be comparatively barren and unproductive.

The vale of Merdasht, which contained the once celebrated city of Persepolis, which was famed for its agricultural produce, watered, as it was, by the Araxes, Cyrus and Medus, and which supported a population of 1,500 villages, besides Persepolis, is now a dreary waste. The plains in the vicinity of Comaishah have been much praised for their exuberant fertility and beauty by Chardin, who traversed them nine times; and yet, in Fraser's opinion, they are sterile and barren. The district of Ispahan is well-watered by the Zunderood, and numerous canals, drawn from the river, for the purpose of irrigation. The plain of Hamadan, 15 miles long by 9 broad, is abundantly fertile; and that of Kermanshaw, 80 miles S. W., is the most fertile in Persia. While Kerr Porter was there, such was its exhuberant produce that the whole expenditure of himself and suite, consisting of ten persons and twelve horses, with mules in proportion, was only 2s. 6d. a-day. The plain of Khoi, in Aderbeidjan, is noted for its deep and exuberant soil, which is so stiff as to require, in some places, 10 pair of buffaloes to drag the ploughshare through it; but the district of Khalkhal is the granary of this province, the soil being a dark loam, and standing in no need of artificial irrigation. A number of fertile valleys exist in the southern slopes and subordinate ranges of the Elboors. In Kerman, the only fertile district is that of Noormansheer; and the district of Darabgherd, S.E. of the Baktegan lake. The Koordish districts, in the northern part of Persian Khorasan, are abundantly fertile; but Khorasan is so subjected to the inroads of the Turkman tribes, that its once numerous population, flourishing cities, and extensive commerce have disappeared. The ancient lawgiver, Zoroaster, enjoined the Persians to plant useful trees, and irrigate the dry lands, and to work out their salvation by pursuing the labours of agriculture. By thus connecting the temporal and future interest of his followers, agriculture could not fail to flourish; and hence, under the Sassanian dynasty, Persia was as well cultivated as could be expected under a despotic government and the physical disadvantages of a dry and parched soil. But, ever since the extinction of the Magian faith and empire, Persia has gradually declined, and the Persians, like other Mohammedans under bad governments, are content with the present, and give themselves no trouble about futurity. The Parsee, or Ghubres, the persecuted descendants of the ancient race, are as industrious and patient as the modern Persians are idle and fickle; and it is the opinion of Chardin, that, if ever these Ghubres were to recover their wonted ascendancy, Persia would present a very different aspect. A young Persian met Morier on the road from Cauzeroon to Sheerauz, and, entering into conversation, lamented the miseries of the peasantry of his district, who were oppressed beyond the power of endurance. Do you pay your taxes yearly,' said Morier?' Yearly!' said he, why, we pay them monthly, and frequently twice a month. Upon what are the taxes levied?' Upon every thing we possess, and, when they can find nothing else to tax, they tax our very children. Would to heaven that you Europeans would come and take this country from us, and then I would be your servant.' This language conveyed more of the feeling of oppression than whole volumes. The land-tax was usually a tenth of the gross produce; but lands held in fief, or for payment of military service, were exempt. It is now one-fifth of the gross produce, in addition to the saaduraut, or irregular taxes instituted to supply the exigency of the state, by which each proprietor was obliged to furnish a share proportioned to his estate. This is one of the heaviest burdens levied on the cultivator.

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If Persia be deficient in grain, it abounds with herbs and flowers of every

kind and hue. The gardens are numerous and extensive, and few countries surpass Persia in the variety and flavour of its fruits, as the fig, the pomegranate, the almond, the date, the peach, and the apricot. Khorasan is famous for its melons, of which there are twenty species. The quinces of Ispahan are the finest in the East; and the vines of Sheerauz, Yesd, and Ispahan, have each their peculiar excellence. Of raisins there are fourteen kinds, of which the violet, red, and black, are most esteemed, and so large that one of them is a good mouthful. The Persian dates are exceedingly rich, their syrup being sweeter and more pleasant than virgin honey. Pomegranates attain great perfection, some of them weighing a full pound. The country also produces hemp, tobacco, opium, sesamum, rhubarb, manna, saffron, cotton, turpentine, mastic, and various aromatic gums. Khousar, in Irak, is celebrated for its orchards. Gheelan and Mazanderan, or the narrow stripe between the Elboorz and the Caspian, are by far the most fertile and productive districts in all Persia. The climate is hot and humid, and the soil is watered by innumerable streams, which descend from the mountains to the sea. From September to the end of April, the whole country is one continued garden, and is covered with forests of oranges and lemons, and single and double jessamines. So beautiful is this tract during that season, that it is denominated Belad al Irem, or 'the terrestrial paradise.' The cultivation of mulberry trees and rearing of silk worms is the chief employment of the Gheelaunees; for silk is but sparingly produced in Mazanderaun. The annual produce of silk which passes through the custom houses of Gheelaun is, as Fraser was informed, about 60,000 maunds shakee, or 900,000lbs. English, exclusive of what is used in home-consumption, which does not pay duty.

Animal Kingdom.] The horses of Persia have been always celebrated as the finest in the East. Every person acquainted with ancient history has read of the Nisæan pastures and the Nisæan horses. They are, however, although they may excel the Arabian horses in shape and handsomeness, inferior to them in fleetness; and, for this reason, the celebrated Nadir Shah preferred the Arab breed to the Persian. The horses of the

Chob country are remarkable for their strength, though they have not so much blood as those of the desert. Those of Shuster are large, powerful and admirably fitted for riding horses, but are not found to answer as race-horses. The Turcoman breed of horses has been introduced into Persia; they attain a great size, and are capable of enduring extraordinary fatigue. They have been known to perform a journey of 900 miles in 11 successive days. The late Vakeel Kerim Khan, mounted on one of these, once performed a journey of 332 miles in 58 hours. Camels are quite common in Interior and Southern Persia, and are of three kinds, but the Bactrian camel is most used for travelling. Mules are much used, and particular care is taken of the breed. An excellent breed of the ass has been introduced from Arabia. The gurkhur, or wild ass, is an object of the chase; his flesh is esteemed a delicacy. It is prodigiously fleet, and its habits are exactly those so graphically described in the book of Job. The forests of the Elboors in Gheelaun and Mazanderan abound, as might be expected, in wild animals, as wolves, tigers, jackals, and foxes, and boars, with the Caspian cat. We are not so certain of the existence of the hyaena in the southern provinces. Lions, leopards, and jackals, also abound in Mazanderan. Oxen and cows are kept chiefly for agricultural purposes, and for the supply of the dairy. The cows of Mazanderan and Gheelaun are small in size, and resemble the lesser breeds of that animal in India.

and

Those of Interior Persia are of a better size; they have less of the hump, and resemble the English breed of black cattle. The Persian sheep are numerous and large; they are of the Dhoomba, or fat-tailed kind. These, with goats, constitute the wealth of the Eels or wandering tribes. In consequence of the great abundance of pasture land, and the numerous pastoral tribes that roam the country, wool is produced in great abundance all over the country. The best wool is that of Kermaun, the mountains of which, hot and arid in summer, and intensely cold in winter, sustain great flocks of sheep and goats, from whence the shawls, nummuds, and other woollen fabrics of the country, are made. Not only is the wool of the sheep itself very fine, but the goats produce a down which grows in winter at the roots of the hair, like that of the Tibet or shawl goats, and is nearly as fine. This is spun into various fabrics, which almost vie with the shawls of Cashmere in warmth and softness, if not in fineness and beauty of manufacture. This down, called khoolk in the language of the country, is found not only in Kermaun, but more or less over all Khorasan, the mountains of which are favourable to the animals which produce it. But the Khorasan khoolk is not so fine as that of Kermaun, being full of coarse goat-hair and very foul, and does not fetch in Khorasan more than 5d. per lb., whereas that of Kermaun is much finer, cleaner, and even cheaper in Kermaun. Animals of the deer kind abound in Persia, and hares are numerous in the uncultivated parts of the country. Tame and wild fowl are much the same as those of Europe. Quails and partridges are quite common, and immense numbers of pigeons are reared by the natives for their dung which is used as manure for melons. The pigeon-houses in the vicinity of Ispahan were in Chardin's time above 3000 in number, and very large, each being six times the size of European ones. Eagles, vultures, and falcons, abound in the mountainous parts of the country, and the latter are much used in hunting. As the rivers in Persia are few, fish cannot be numerous. Salt-water fish are abundant, both in the Caspian sea and the Persian gulf. The people inhabiting the coast of Mekraun and Kerman live much on this aliment, and were hence called Ichthyophagi, or 'fish-eaters,' by the ancients. All the rivers of Mazanderan abound in fish, especially sturgeon, vast quantities of which are cured on the coasts of these provinces, and carried to Astracan.

Mineralogy.] This is not a very fertile subject, for Persia, though mountainous, produces few minerals or metals. Unfortunately salt is the mineral which most abounds, the ground in most parts being more or less impregnated with it. None of the precious metals are found in Persia. Copper is produced in the mountains of Mazanderan and Kerman, and from those in the vicinity of Casbin, but not in sufficient quantity for the internal consumption. Lead is produced in the mountains of Fars and Kerman. Sulphur is an abundant mineral production, especially near the mountain Damawand. Iron-stone abounds in Aderbeidjan : the whole tract between Tabreez and the Araxes being covered with mountains of a reddish brown hue, indicating the presence of that mineral. At Sheherderabad on the Goorangoo, a branch of the Kizil-Ozan, to the S.W. of Meeanah, a copper mine has been lately discovered, and an Englishman began to work it in 1817. Lieut. Alexander, who passed this way in 1824, in his journey to Ardebeel, says, that here are perhaps the richest veins of copper in the world. Silver and lead are also found in considerable quantities.1 Of all

4 If ever a European colony were to be established in Persia, says he, I know not of a better situation for it than this; the climate being good, the soil fertile, rich ores in

the mineral productions of Persia, turquoises have been the most celebrated. This gem is produced in the mountain of Feeroos-Koh in the Elboors, and in a hill 40 miles W.N.W. of Neeshapore. The former mine is probably exhausted, as nothing of it has been heard since the time of Chardin, 160 years since, because, according to Fraser, the mines in the district of Neeshapore are at present the only place where such gems are now found. The hills in which they are found are a mass of porphyritic rock, intermingled with beds of clay, and conglomerates of the same substance, all strongly tinged with iron, and in many places pervaded with micaceous iron ore; the turquoise or kalaite is disseminated through this in veins, nodules, and irregular masses. The mines are six in number, and are all the property of the crown, and are farmed to the highest bidder. The rent, when Fraser was there, in January 1822, was 2000 Khorasan tomauns, or £2,700 sterling; but this being considered exorbitant, some of the mines remained unlet. The mines are most wretchedly managed, no system whatever being used in the mining operations, which are left to be conducted by ignorant peasants, who have neither capital to advance, nor skill to direct their operations. Were they in the hands of intelligent miners, under the direction of the crown or some rich capitalist, they would pay abundantly. But the former will advance nothing, and the latter dare not; such is the insecurity of property under a despotism, which, though shifting hands, remains immutable. Marble, freestone, and slate abound near Hamadan. The first is of four colours, white, or statuary, black, red and black, and white and black. We have already noticed the common production called Tabreez marble. Mummy, a noted Persian production, is found in Kerman, near the village of Kesuiyeh. This substance is a black liquid petrolium, called moum by the Persians, which signifies an unguent.' It is also called tutty. It oozes from a rock in a cavern. Once a year only is the door of the cavern opened, and the moum which had distilled during the year (a quantity in size equal to a pomegranate) is taken out, sealed up, and said to be deposited in the royal treasury. It is esteemed a catholicon by the Persians, and reckoned more precious than gold. Some of this precious unguent was brought by the Persian ambassador in 1809, as a present from the shah to the queen of England. It is also found in Khorasan. Near Dalakee, on the road from Busheer to Sheerauz, are two fountains of black naphtha or bitumen.

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CHAP. IV.-COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES.

MANUFACTURES and commerce in such a country as Persia cannot prove a very prolific subject, inasmuch as the almost total want of internal water communication is an insuperable impediment to inland commerce, combined as this is with that of the great central desert, and the difficulty of land-carriage over the great mountainous ranges that surround the lofty plateau. The institutions of the Magian system were also unfavourable to maritime commerce, as it was the design of Zoroaster to confine his countrymen solely to agriculture, and to make as much of their barren and thirsty soil as they could. Hence whatever maritime commerce was abundance; and, as it is at a distance from the frontier, the colony would not run the risk of being disturbed by war. There is no probability, however, that this prediction will be long verified. The Russians have completely established their boundary on the Araxes, and another war will put them in possession of all Aderbeidjan, and remove the frontier line to the Kizil Ozan.