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MONEY AND WEIGHTS OF THE BIBLE.

sycophantia-false accusation-Luke xix. 8). After the revolt of Bar-cochab, Hadrian renewed the tax, and in the reign of Alexander Severus (A.D. 226) the Jews continued to pay the didrachm. This civil tribute was paid in denarii. "Show me the tribute-money; and they brought unto Him a penny" (Matt. xxii. 19; comp. Mark xii. 15; Luke xx. 24). "And He saith unto them, Whose is this image and superscription? They say unto Him, Cæsar's". The title of Casar is common to all the Roman emperors, and the name of Tiberius, who was the Cæsar alluded to, is abbreviated on the coins, TI., while the title CESAR is at length. The answer may further be illustrated by the small brass coins issued under the Procurators Coponius, Ambivius, and Rufus, circulating in Judaa at this time, on which is simply the legend Kaisaros-of Cæsar. [PENNY.]

TWENTIETH PART OF THE SHEKEL; about 14d. See Gerah and Shekel.

The two following terms bear direct relation to money, and are worthy of illustration:

perma

MONEY-CHANGERS. Three distinct terms are employed in the N. T. to express this class-(1) Trapezites, Rumularius, A. V. "exchanger" (Matt. xxv. 27), from trapeza," a table", a word employed for the "tables' (mense) of the money-changers in Matt. xxi. 12; Mark xi. 15; John ii. 15, and for the "bank" (mensa) in Luke XIX. 23. Trapezites was the ordinary name for the banker at Athens. His principal occupation was that of changing money at an agio. He was a private banker, like the argentarii at Rome, who must be distinguished from the mensarii or mensularii and the numularii, who were public bankers appointed by the State on various emergencies, the latter of whom seem to have been nently employed. Hence the Vulgate has rendered their name in all cases correctly. As the Greek word trapezites is from trapeza, "a table", so our English word "banker" (French, banquier) is derived from the French banc, "a bench", on which the person sat to do his business. (2) Kollubistes, numularius, A. V. "money-changer" (Matt. xxi. 12: Mark xi. 15); A. V. "changer" (John ii. 15), from kollubos or kollubon, sometimes designated as "the changing of money ", or "rate of exchange", sometimes as "a small coin or a kind of money' A passage in Theophrastus shows us that the kollubos inust have been a silver piece ranging between the lepton [MITE] and the obol, and therefore of an obol, weighing about 1'4 grains. It would thus be the silver equivalent of the chalkous, which was the copper of an obol. (3) Kermatistes, numularius; A. V. "changer of money" (John ii. 14), from a Greek word signifying "to cut small", which is from kerma, "money", John ii. 15 [MONEY]. Money-changing was called kermatismos. No coin was called by this name. The money-changers, of which perhaps the " 'goldsmiths' who repaired the

vessels of the Temple (Neh. iii. 8) are prototypes, sat in the courts of the Temple on the 25th of Nizan for the purpose of exchanging foreign money for Jewish, as the Temple tax could only be paid in this latter coin. They also seem to have acted as bankers, money being placed in their hands for the purpose of increasing it, and on which interest was paid (Matt. xxv. 27; Luke xix. 23). Though the system oflending" was not altogether objected to in the O. T. (Exod. xxii. 25; Lev. xxv. 36, 37; Deut. xxiii. 19, 20; Prov. vi. 1; Ps. xv. 5; Jer. xv. 10; Ezek. xxii. 12; xviii. 13, &c.), yet after the Captivity the Jews were compelled to leave off usury (Neh. v. 11, 12), whilst in the N. T. period it was sanctioned, provided it was done "hoping for nothing again" (Luke vi. 35; comp. Matt. v. 42). The system, however, pursued by the moneychangers in the Temple must have been a vicious one, as is apparent from our Lord's denunciation of their doings (Matt. xxi. 13; Mark xi. 17; Luke xix. 46; comp. Isa. Ivi. 7; Jer. vii. 11).

Persian.

TREASURY or TREASURE. This term is used in the A. V. of the N. T. as the translation of three different words-(1) Gazophulakion (Mark xii. 41, 43; Luke xxi. 1; John vifi, 20), from gaza, "a treasure", and phulasso, "to keep". The word gaza (Heb. ganza), which occurs in this sense in Acts viii. 27, is employed frequently in the O. T. for "treasures" or "treasure-house Ezra v. 17; vi. 1; vii. 20; Esth. iii. 9; iv. 7; Ezek. xxvii. 24; 1 Chron. xxviii. 11). It is not a Hebrew word, but probably a The term gazophulakion or gazophylacium occurs in various passages of the Maccabees, and the Vulgate uses it as the term for the "chest" (Heb. arun, LXX. kibotos) in which Jehoiada collected the money for the repairs of the Temple [see General Remarks]. The treasury chamber appears to have been a place where people came to offer their charity-money for the repairs and other uses of the Temple, and consisted of 13 brazen chests (Heb. trumpets, because the mouths were wide at the top and narrow below), which stood in the outer court the sacred treasure of the Jews, and explained in Mark of the women. (2) Korbanas, corbōna (Matt. xxvii. 6), vii. 11 as a gift (dōron), and by Josephus as "a gift to God". "unbloody sacrifices" (comp. Lev. ii. 1, 4, 5, 6).,, Doron Korban in the O. T. is principally employed for in the N. T. principally means "gifts in general" (Matt. ii. 11), "sacrificial gifts" (Matt. v. 23, 24; Heb. v. 1; xi. 4), "gifts of God to man" (Ephes. ii. 8), "of man to man" (Luke xxi. 1), and in one case appears to mean the (Rev. xi. 10); but it is also used of gifts to the "treasury "treasury itself" (Luke xxi. 4). (3) Thesauros, thesaurus. (a) As the "treasure-house" (Matt. ii. 11; xiii. 52); (b) as the "treasure" (Matt. vi. 19, 20; xii. 35; xiii. 44; xix. 21; Mark x. 21; Luke vi. 45; xii. 33; xviii. 22; 2 Cor. iv. 7; Col. ii. 3; Heb. xi. 26). The word is used in the LXX. as the translation of the Hebrew otsar, meaning either "treasures of God", "store-house for corn". "treasury for gold and silver", &c. (Deut. xxviii. 12; xxxii. 34; 1 Chron. xxvii. 27; Josh. vi. 19; 1 Kings vii. 51, &c.).

WEIGHTS.

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The subject of Hebrew weights is involved in great obscurity, and scholars are at variance on several important questions. Some are of opinion that reliable information is to be obtained in Hebrew literature, and especially in Maimonides, who makes the Jewish silver shekel have a weight of 320 average-sized grains of barley taken from the middle of the ear, which are identical with the grains of troy weight, and to equal 320 grains troy containing exactly 100 carats diamond weight; but the monuments in existence and other facts prove that the Rabbinical distinction between the Mosaic shekel and the later shekel is altogether fallacious. Though specimens of Assyrian, Babylonian, Egyptian, and Greek weights have been discovered, no Judæan weight has ever come to light. The following weights are mentioned in the Bible:BEKAH (Gen. xxiv. 22), "half", "half a shekel". This word only occurs in the Pentateuch. See Bekah under MONEY.

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MANEH (LXX. mna; Vulgate, mina). "A portion or part"; A.V." pound", sometimes called stater-standard; a word owing its origin to Babylon, and which, as the weight was employed by the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Hebrews, and Greeks, has the same meaning in the language of all these nations. The weight of the golden targets made by Solomon for the Temple are stated to have been 300 [shekels] of gold each (2 Chron. ix. 16), whilst in the parallel passage the amount of gold employed for each shield is given as three pounds (manehs, i Kings x. 17). It would thus appear that the manch of

gold was equal to 100 shekels, but it must be observed that in the Chronicles the Hebrew is 300 of gold ", the word shekels being supplied in the A. V.; and it has consequently been suggested by some that the Chronicles was written in the Macedonian period, and that consequently one should reckon what is here meant ass drachms to the manch", as in use among the Greeks. The passage, however, is obscure, and in any case the calculation of 100 shekels to the maneh is not likely. That in Ezekiel (xlv. 12) relative to the manch is also difficult of explanation [SHEKEL; TALENT]. The word maneh further occurs in Ezra ii. 69; Neh. vii. 71, 72; comp. 1 Esdras v. 45.

POUND. (1) Mnā, mina (1 Macc. xiv. 24; xv. 18). Here large sums are weighed by this standard, and it refers to the Attic talent. (2) Litra, a word used by the Greeks of Sicily in their system of weights and money, sometimes called stater-standard-and equivalent to the Latin word libra or as, the unit of weight among the

MONEY AND WEIGHTS OF THE BIBLE.

Romans. Josephus says that the Hebrew manch of gold equalled 2 litra. The libra or Roman pound = 6059 grains, consequently 2 Roman pounds = 12647 grains; and as the Hebrew gold shekel was the fiftieth part of the maneh, it must have weighed about 253 grains [SHEKEL under MONEY]. The word litra occurs in the N. T. in John xii. 3 and xix. 39.

SHEKEL. A word signifying "weight", according to which numerous objects were weighed, especially the metals. The passage in Ezek. xiv. 12 is confusing, and cannot be satisfactorily explained, but it must be remembered that it is prophetical. 50 or 60 shekels equalled a maneh [MANEH; POUND] 3600 or 3000 shekels equalled a talent [TALENT]. See Shekel under MONEY.

TALENT. Kikkar, properly "a circle" or "globe"; hence kuklos, circus. The largest llebrew weight for metals. First occurs in Exod. xxv. 39, "a talent of pure gold". It is also specially spoken of as "talent of sil ver" (2 Kings v. 22), talent of lead" (Zech. v. 7), "talent of brass" (Exod. xxxviii. 29), and "talent of iron' (1 Chron. xxix. 7). A talent of silver bound up in a bag, and one change of garment, was about as much as one man could carry (2 Kings v. 23), and weighing was probably avoided by the sealed bags containing a certain weight of silver. The Hebrew talent was derived from

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Assyria and Babylonia. Of the talents current in these countries, the heavy or Assyrian talent passed through and to Palestine, where we find it in use among the IsMesopotamia and Syria to the Phoenician coast to LS raelites. In Nineveh, as well as in Palestine, besides the weight talent of the king of 3000 sixtieths of the mar for valuing precious metals, a special reckoning was AMDA by talents of 3000 gold and silver units; but when it was found convenient to reckon 3000 shekels instead of 209 to the talent is not known, nor when a deviation wa made from the sexagesimal division of the manda, an was limited to 50 instead of to 60 units. The sum total đ the taxes to the sanctuary paid by the people is stated to be (Exod xxxviii. 25) 100 talents, 1773 soties, which 603, 60 men each contributed a Ealf sheke, so that according to this, 3000 shekels are reckoned to the taient; and as the talent is always divided into a 50 shekels went to the manch, which is corroborated from the fact that the taxes for persons of various age and sex commence at a maximum point of 50 shekels Let xxvii. 3, 16), and that Achan found a wedge of goid of just 50 shekels weight, and not 60 (Josh n. 21 See General Remarks,] Among the ancient Hebrews there appear to have been three different kinds of tankis, which were derived from the three similar talents of AS | syria and Mesopotamia, as shown by the fourring table :

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252 9165758749'5 12645 825 252-9165

60 minæ or 3000 shekels X 252-9165 --
50 shekels X 252 9165--

131

2

2 6 218

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=674392-5

11239 875 = 2217975

of the weight maneh
60 ming or 3000 shekels X 224 7975 117
50 shekels X 2247975 =

The holy shekel. The shekels of the weight talent "of the king" and the gold talent are identical, the latter talent having been formed from the former, which appears to have been used for weighing other materials than the metals ("king's weight", 2 Sam. xiv. 26). [SHEKEL]. The weight of 9" holy" silver shekels (224 7975 X 9) thus equals 8 sixtieths of the "weight" maneh (25279165 X 8), and the value of 15 "holy" silver shekels equals that of 1 gold shekel, i.e. £2. Some, however, have taken the silver talent as weighing 660,000 grains [114 lbs. troy], and, on the basis of the shekel being equivalent to 38.. equalling £450, and the gold talent (with a shekel of about 132 grains) as weighing double the silver, 1,320,000 grains [229] lbs. troy], and equalling, at £4 per oz troy, £11,000 (Smith, Student's 0. T. Hist.). As to the copper talent, which is supposed by some to have had a shekel of four times the weight of the gold shekel, though only 1,500 to the talent, and therefore equalling 792,000 grains, it is impossible to speak with certainty; but in all probability the copper talent did not contain a fewer number of shekels than that of the silver.

The amounts of talents mentioned in the Bible during

6 13 4 028

the reigns of David and Solomon are almost incredible! (1 Chron. xxii. 14; xxix. 4, 7). The annual income Solomon is said to have been 666 talente of god 1 Kings x. 14: 2 Chron. ix, 13), which, taking the estate of some that the gold talent was double the giver, would be equivalent to £7,780,000, a sum more than the revenues of the whole Persian Empire under Darius, which has been calculated at about three millions and a half. But if we take 15 shekels of silver as equaling one shekel of gold, and 15 talents of silver as equalling one talent of gold, then 666 talents of gold were exactly 10,000 talents of silver, or £4,000,000. It is, however, ficult to hazard any safe conjecture, and most likely the figures in all these passages have been corrupted.

NOTE-For further and fuller information on the Money and Weights" of the Bible, the following Works should be cost ed: Rev. R. Hussey, Weights and Money, 185; E. & Pɔe, art "Weights", in Smith's Dict, of the Bible, 1983; J. Branda, w. Madden, History of Jewish Coinage and of Money in the Das Münz-Mars-und Gewichtswesen in Vorderasien, 1986: F. Old and New Testaments, 1864; and Supplement to the same im the Numismatic Chronicle for 1874, 1873, 1876.

Roman Money, mentioned in the New Testament, reduced to the English and American Standard.

A penny, or denarius...
A pound, or mina (Gk. mna)..

£ s. d. 008-8 368

cts. cts. 14.67-15.50

$ 16 12

THE ETHNOLOGY OF THE BIBLE.

BY THE REV. A. H. SAYCE, M.A.,
Queen's College, Oxford.

THE ethnological knowledge displayed in the Biblical books varies with their age. The geographical horizon of the Jews became gradually widened, new tribes and races appeared upon the scene, and information was collected from the merchants of Phenicia or the literature of Egypt and Babylonia. The ethnology of the Bible, therefore, naturally falls into four periods:-(1) the Patriarchal; (2) the Davidic; (3) that of the Exile; and (4) that of the New Testament. Great light has been thrown upon it by Egyptian and Assyrian research; the first period being chiefly illustrated by the monuments of Egypt, the next two periods by the monuments of Assyria. But we must first ascertain what indications may be found in the Bible itself of the origin and ethnological relations of the peoples with whom the Hebrews were brought into contact, and then consider how far these have been confirmed or modified by modern discovery. In such a subject it is difficult to draw a hard and fast line between what is ethnological and what is geographical; our only means for determining the blood-relationship of some particular people often consists in its geographical position and local names. Other means will be language, history, tradition, and (where attainable) moral and physical characteristics.

We must remember, however, that language and race are not convertible terms. A race may adopt a foreign language even without intermarriage, and where intermarriages take place, such an occurrence is far from uncommon. Of this, the modern Jews are a good instance in point. The fact that two nationalities speak the same language only proves that they have been at some time or other in social contact, while diversity of language does not necessarily imply diversity of race. At most, linguistic agreement or diversity raises a presumption in favour of racial agreement or diversity.

In

Western Asia, with which the ethnology of the Bible is mainly concerned, may be regarded as a square, bounded on the north by the Black Sea and the Caucasus, on the south by the Indian Ocean, on the east by the Caspian, the Persian Gulf, and the intervening mountainous country, and on the west by the Mediterranean and Red Sea. Egypt is attached to the western side of the square by the isthmus of Suez, the promontory of Asia Minor lying opposite to it, with the Greek islands of the Egean Sea beyond. The square is further divided by the two great rivers, Euphrates and Tigris, which rise near each other in the mountains of Armenia, and after flowing in a parallel direction towards the south, fall into the Persian Gulf at the same spot. Armenia and Asia Minor are high tablelands, intersected by lofty chains of mountains, of which the Taurus, Masius, and Niphates ranges may be considered the chief, and sloping upwards to the peaks of the Caucasus. The mountains of Armenia extend to the south-east along the southern shore of the Caspian, where they enclose Media Rhagiana, the home of the Medes, and then, taking a bend, run southwards to the Persian Gulf, and so form the highlands of Elam and Persia on the east of Babylonia. The plain of Babylonia enclosed between the Tigris and Euphrates is low and fertile; Mesopotamia, however, its northern continuation, is a limestone plateau of moderate elevation. On the west the spurs of the Taurus range, under the names of Amanus, Bargylus, and Lebanon, and of Anti-Lebanon and Hermon, stretch southward along the shores of the Mediterranean, and constitute the mountainous region of Syria proper and Phoenicia. The Jordan rises on the S. W. slopes of Anti-Lebanon or Hermon, and after flowing through the Sea of Galilee or Lake Tiberias, falls into the Dead Sea. The angle enclosed between the mountains of Syria and Palestine on the one side and the Euphrates on the other is flat and barren, and was known to the ancients as Arabia Petræa. This stony desert extends far into the heart of Arabia; indeed, it is only on the coastlands of the latter country that mountains and rivers are to be found, and more especially in the south, the Saba and Himyar of early writers, the Arabia Felix of the Romans, the Yemen of modern geographers. The peninsula of Sinai at the head of the Red Sea is also mountainous,but bare and barren, like the coast of the Red Sea on the African side. Here, however, the Nile flows at a little distance inland, fertilising the valley through which it passes. It was this valley, together with the delta at the mouth of the river, that constituted Egypt, and saw the rise of the first postdiluvian civilization.

Languages are classed (1) according to the way in which they express the relations of grammar, and (2) according to their descent from a common parent-tongue. Europe and Western Asia we find examples both of inflectional and of agglutinative languages. An inflectional language is one in which the grammatical relations of words in a sentence are denoted by terminations which have no independent existence apart from the words to which they are attached, or else by the change of vowels or consonants within the words themselves. French, or German, or Latin are familiar examples of inflectional tongues. An agglutinative language is one in which the relations of grammar are expressed by affixing one word to another. In English, for instance, man's, men, book-8, love-d would be illustrations of inflection; there-in, thereto, of agglutination. In Europe and Western Asia there are The 10th chapter of Genesis, especially if compared two leading inflectional families of speech, the ARYAN with Ezek. xxvii., offers a classified summary of the geoor Indo-European, to which Latin, Greek, Persian, San- graphical knowledge of the Old Testament. The chapter skrit, Keltic, Slavonic, German, English, & most modern has often been called an ethnographical table"; but it European languages belong; and the SEMITIC, which has long since been shown that the names are arranged comprises Hebrew, Phoenician, Aramaic, Arabic, Assyrian, in a geographical and not in an ethnographical order. & Ethiopic; while there are at least two agglutinative They comprise the whole known world of the Jews, with families of speech, the TURANIAN or Finno-Tatar, its centre in Palestine and the Mediterranean, extendcomprising Finnic, Hungarian, Tatar, Turkish, Mongol, ing from Media and Elam on the East to Greece and and other tongues; and the Dravidian of Western Tarshish on the West, and from Gomer and the Caucasus India, of which Tamil is the chief dialect. There is also another inflectional family of speech known as Alarodian, once spoken throughout the Armenian highlands, of which Georgian is now the chief representative. In the Caucasus we find the remains of several distinct families of speech which have elsewhere disappeared. A family of speech, it must be remembered, is a group of cognate languages which can all be traced back to a single parent tongue.

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on the North to Arabia and Nubia in the South. The three sons of Noah have each a definite zone assigned to them:-SHEM, possibly the Assyrian Sa'mu, "brownish", having the middle zone of Western Asia; while HAM, "the black one", has Egypt and Ethiopia; and JAPHETH, perhaps "the fair one", has Asia Minor and Europe. How little ethnographical the chapter can be is indicated by the fact that the dark-skinned Egyptians and Ethiopians, with short stature, receding chin, thick

THE ETHNOLOGY OF THE BIBLE.

lips, and scanty beard, are associated with the Semitic Canaanites of olive complexion, lofty stature, aquiline nose, black eyes, and full beard; while the Turanian Elamites are similarly associated with the Semitic Assyrians and Arameans. Equally little is it linguistic: the Elamites, for instance, spoke an agglutinative language, the Assyrians and Arameans an inflectional one. We cannot even attach any ethnological value to the genealogies contained in it, since when it is said that "Canaan begat Sidon his firstborn", all that is meant is that Sidon was a city of Canaan, not that there was any necessary connection in blood or language between the Sidonians and the inhabitants of the other parts of Canaan. The proper names, in short, are arranged solely according to their geographical order.

I. THE PATRIARCHAL PERIOD.

II. THE PERIOD OF THE DAVIDIC EMPIRE.
III. THE PERIOD OF THE BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY.
IV. THE TIME OF CHRIST AND HIS APOSTLES.

I. THE PATRIARCHAL PERIOD. In what may be termed the patriarchal period, the dealings of the Hebrews were confined to the tribes of Palestine and Syria, to Egypt, Babylonia, and Arabia Petra.

(a) The Peoples of Palestine, E. and W. of Jordan.Palestine was occupied by tribes speaking dialects more or less closely allied to Hebrew and Phoenician," the language of CANAAN" or "the lowlands", and probably belonging to the same Semitic race. There are indications, however, that the Semites had found an alien race in possession of the country when they entered it, and that the first settlements, such as Sidon, were in the lowlands or on the sea coast. The "GIANTS" mentioned from time to time seem to have been relics of this alien race, whose exact character, however, we have no means of determining; to them belonged the Rephaim or "giants" in the Haurân, the Zuzim or Zamzummim, the Anakim or Emim, the Avim, and the Horites, or "cave-dwellers" of Seir (Gen. xiv. 5, 6; Deut. ii. 10-12, 20-23). The four last populations were destroyed by the Semitic Ammonites, Moabites, Philistines, and Edomites. The AMORITES, or " Highlanders ", in the south-west of Palestine, with their capitals Hebron and Hazezon-Tamar, were reckoned among the descendants of the Rephaim or "giants", the two Rephaim kings of Bashan being also called Amorites (Deut. iii. 8). The term Amorite, however, included all the hill tribes of the south and east, without reference to race or language (see Num. xiii. 29), and is as much a descriptive title as Canaanite, Perizzite ("native of the plain"), and Hivite (villager"). Hence we find HIVITES in the north (Josh. xi. 3; Judg. iii. 3; 2 Sam. xxiv. 7), as well as in Gibeon (Josh. ix. 7; xi. 19) and Shechem (Gen. xxxiv. 2), which are called Amorite elsewhere (2 Sam. xxi. 2; Gen. xlviii. 22, margin), while the Amorites of Hebron are more strictly defined as Anakim (Josh. xv. 14; Judg. i. 20). The Jebusites of Jerusalem seem to have been Semites, though the different modes of spelling the proper name Araunah or Ornan, as well as the difficulty of finding a Semitic etymology for it, suggest the contrary. They are, moreover, classed among the Amorites in Josh. x. 5, 6 (Heb. text); but this proves little, as the epithet "Amorite" includes both Semitic and non-Semitic tribes. The Girgashites on the west of Phoenicia, the Arkites and Sinites at the foot of Lebanon, the Phoenician Arvadites and Zemarites of Aradus and Simyra, and the Hamathites on the Orontes, were all Semitic. So, too, were the AMALEKITES, the Kenites, and the Kenizzites, or "hunters", to the south of Palestine and Mount Seir. A tribe of Amalekites also established itself in central Palestine (Judg. v. 14: xii. 15); but they were generally regarded as merely a branch of the Edomites (Gen. xxxvi. 12), like the Kenizzites Gen. xxxvi. 15, 42). The KENITES dwelt among the Amalekites (Num. xxiv. 20, 21; 1 Sam. xv. 6), but a portion of them followed the Israelites on their entrance into Canaan (Judg. i. 16; iv. 11). They seem to have been of Midianite origin (Judg. iv. 19), and their nomad habits

clung to them in Palestine, where they lived in tents both in the north (Judg. iv. 11) and south (Judg. 1 16; 1 Sam xv. 6). The south-west corner of Palestine was occupied by the PHILISTINES from Caphtor (Amos ix. 7; Jer xlvii. 4; Deut. i 23; the clause in Gen. x. 14 is misplaced), with their five strongholds and princes Hing and others have made them Aryan, and connected their name with that of the Pelasgi, appealing to the Septuagint rendering, Allophuloi, and the resemblance of Caphitor to Cyprus or Crete. The name Philistine (whence Palestine, however, probably means "emigrant", like that of the Faiashas or Ethiopian Jews of the present day. According to Herodotus (ii. 128), Philition was one of the (Semine Shepherds who fed his flocks in Northern Egypt. It is preferable to see in them, therefore, one of the Ph.rnicion tribes settled in the Delta, called Kaft-ur, or "Greater Phoenicia", by the Egyptians, and their migration into Palestine has been fixed by the Egyptian monuments in the reign of Ramses III (about B.C. 120). Half a century before, in the reign of Menephthah L, Gaza and the neighbouring cities were still garrisoned by Egyptian forces under the command of Semitic chiefs. Edom and the country to the south of the Philistines was sometimes known by the general name of TEMAN, or the South". The name would be very old, if Harkavy is right in making Temennu the Egyptian title of the cou try when visited by a political refugee named Sancha in the time of the 12th dynasty.

(b) The Peoples of the Arabian Peninsula. — Arabia was probably the original home of the Semitic race, and i the PHOENICIANS accordingly believed themselves to have come from the Persian Gulf (Strab. i 2, 33; mi 3, 4; 4, 27; Justin, xviii. 3. 2; Pliny H. N. iv. 38; H& i.1; vii. 89; Schol. to Hom. Od. iv. 84). They would have taken the same line of march as that followed by Abraham, like the many other allied tribes that arrived from time to time in Palestine, where some of them settled in the lowlands (Canaan), others intermarried with the aborigines, while others passed into Egypt, and eventually founded the dynasty of the Shepherds Those in the south and east led a nomadic life, and constantly threatened their more civilized kinsmen on the west of the Jordan. Among these nomadic tribes may be reckoned, at one time, the Israelites, with the Edomites, Moabites and Ammonites, all of whom traced their descent from Terah. The Israelites, after a sojourn im Egypt, were the last to establish themselves in Palestine, and to extirpate, so far as they could, both the primitive inhabitants of Canaan and the subsequent Semitic settlers. The extirpation, however, was far from complete; and M. Clermont-Ganneau has shown that the present peasantry of Canaan are the descendants of the ancient Canaanites, partly of Semitic and partly of nonSemitic blood. As regards the old races of the country, it will be noticed that most of the names assigned to them (Amorite, Hivite, Horite, &c.) are merely descriptive, like the names of foreign populations in the Egyp tian and early Babylonian inscriptions, and hence can throw no light on the origin and relationship of the various tribes included under them.

(e) The races of Syria.-Syria, northward of Palestine, was again disputed ground. Here, too, the Semites settled and founded kingdoms like those of Hamath, or Damascus, or Maachah. ARAM, with his four chil-' dren, is a son of Shem in Gen. x. 22, a grandson of Nabor according to Gen. xxii. 21. Linguistic considerations show that the Aramean Semites branched off from their kingmen in Babylonia before the Semitic migrations to the extreme West, and it is probable that they preceded the Phoenicians proper in maritime trade and the use of the alphabet. By the side of the Arameans stood the HITTITES (Khatti, Kheta, of the Assyrian and Egyptian monuments), divided into numerous small kingdoms (1 Kings x. 29), and with their two centres at Carchemish (now Jerablus) on the Euphrates and Kadesh (on lake Kedez) between Hamath and Damascus. A little to the south of Carchemish was Pethor (now Sajur), at the junction

THE ETHNOLOGY OF THE BIBLE.

of the Sajur and the Euphrates. A body of Hittites has forced its way into the south of Palestine and the neighbourhood of Hebron (Gen. xxv. 9, &c.), but the main part of the nation covered the country between Carchemish and Luz or Bethel in the central hill country of Canaan, i.e. Palestine W. of the Jordan (Judg. i. 2). The Hittites are usually supposed to have been Semites; but their proper names as preserved in the Egyptian and Assyrian inscriptions, as well as their dress and physiognomy, point to an opposite conclusion. They seem, however, to have belonged to two distinct races, one with no beard, the other with a large one, the latter being perhaps of Aramaic descent. They wore a short-sleeved robe which reached to the ankles and was fastened round the waist with a girdle, and used oblong shields of wicker-work. Their chariots were drawn by two horses, and contained three men apiece. The beardless race had thick lips, a straight nose with wide nostrils, and sunken eyes.

Alarodian nations, of whom the Georgians are the modern representatives.

(e) Arabia.- Arabia was separated into three zones, (1) In the south were the JOKTANITES of Saba (Sheba) and Himyar, extending along the coast of Hadramaut (Hazarmaveth) & Yemen (Gen. x. 26-30). The Joktanites were Semites, but both in language and appearance they differed a good deal from their northern kindred. At a late date they passed into Abyssinia under the name of Ghe'ez, and there occupied Meroe and Axum. Hence the Biblical name of CUSH, which properly applied to Abyssinia or Ethiopia, came to be extended also to the southern coast of Arabia. (2) The middle zone was inhabited by the ISHMAELITES, to whom the Koreish of Mecca belonged. The Ishmaelites traced their descent from Abraham, but linguistically their language (the Arabic) belongs to the southern division of Semitic, and must be classed with Himyaritic, and not with Hebrew. Among the 12 Ishmaelite tribes the chief were the NABATHEANS (Nebaioth), (d) Chaldea, Elam, and Mesopotamia. -The whole whose camping-grounds were on the western banks of the country between the Caspian and the Persian Gulf was Euphrates, and the KEDARITES east of Moab. Edomoriginally occupied by tribes speaking agglutinative ites and Ishmaelites seem to have intermarried (Gen. dialects, and probably allied to the Finno-Tatar race. xxviii. 9), which is not surprising when we remember that In BABYLONIA and Elam they had founded powerful the Edomite dominion extended to Elath on the Red Sea, monarchies and civilizations, and the cuneiform system and the Nabatheans themselves intermixed so largely of writing was their invention. Their religion was with their Aramaic neighbours as to give their name to Shamanistic *. They were short, but square-built, with the Syrians among Arabic writers. The western coast eyes slightly oblique, and round heads. It was to of Arabia (as well as Somauli) was called Punt by the Egypthis race that Chedor-laomer (Cudur-lagamar) of Elam tians, the PHUт of the Bible, and was regarded as a pecubelonged, as well as the three subordinate kings, Amra- liarly sacred country. (3) Arabia Petræa, the northern phel king of SHINAR or Sumir, Arioch king of Ellasar zone of Arabia, was inhabited by nomad tribes closely con(Larsa or Senkerch), and Tidal (Turgal) king of Goyim nected with the Ishmaelites, though they were derived (Gutium), A. V. "nations". Semitic nomad tribes from from another wife of Abraham, Keturah (Gen. xxv. 1—4). Arabia crossed the Euphrates into Chaldea at a very early Their leading tribe was MIDIAN, in the peninsula of date, and gradually obtained sufficient power to establish Sinai, a portion of whom seem to have been settled on a monarchy of their own in Sumir or N.W. Babylonia the coast of the Red Sea in a metalliferous region about B.C. 2000, leaving ACCAD or S.E. Babylonia in explored by Captain Burton (1876-7). The Midianites the hands of the alien race (cp. Gen. x. 8-10). But Ur shared the desert region to the south of Judah with (now Mugheir, on the west bank of the Euphrates), long the Amalekites; but there seems little ground for the the Accad capital, at last became Semitic, and by the Arab tradition which makes the Amalekites, like the 16th century B.C. Semitic had become the language of Adites and other prehistoric people, the primitive inBabylonia, and the Semitic element was preponderant habitants of south-western Arabia before the arrival of in the population of the country. From time to time, the Semites; indeed, they are actually brought from the however, non-Semitic tribes entered it from ELAM Persian Gulf, though it is disputed whether they are to be (Susiania) or the northern coastland of the Persian derived from Shem or from Ham. Gen. xxxvi. 12 merely Gulf, such as the Kossæans (16th century B.C.), and the implies an intermixture of Edomites and Amalekites, Caldai (Chaldeans) under Merodach-Baladan (B.C. 721). and therefore does not contradict Gen. xiv. 7, which The Semitic population of Babylonia is termed Casdim places a colony of Amalekites in Palestine long before. in the O. T.; ARPHAXAD (Arph Chesed, "frontier of Baby- The tribes of Arabia Petræa are frequently called "the lonia") is a son of Shem according to Gen. x. 22, Chesed men" or "CHILDREN of the EAST" in the O. T. (Job i. 3; a son of Nahor according to Gen. xxii. 22. Linguistically Gen. xxix. 1; 1 Kings iv. 30; Ezek. xxv. 4, 10), and they and otherwise the Semitic Babylonians are more closely are probably meant by the Kadmonites ("Easterns" related to the Phoenicians and Hebrews than to any rather than "ancients") of Gen. xv. 19. Like the Edomother branch of the Semitic stock. Among them must be ites or the "Shepherds" of Egypt, the Israelites intercounted the ASSYRIANS, who before the 16th century married with the Arab Bedouins before their establishB.C. had established themselves on the Tigris in a corner ment in Canaan (see Exod. xii. 38; xx. 10; Num. xi. 4). of the country called Gutium, which extended from the Even Moses took a wife from Midian, and Caleb, the Euphrates to the mountains of Media, The Accadian hero of Judah, as well as Othniel, the first judge, were race and language were more thoroughly extirpated in descended from the Kenizzites of Edom (Num. xxxii. Assyria than in Babylonia. In Mesopotamia also the 12; Judg. i. 13). A similar intermixture of Midianites Accadians had to yield before the advancing Semites, and Ishmaelites is indicated in Judg. viii. 24. In the though Harran had once been an Accadian town. Meso- direction of Mesopotamia and the North the purely potamia itself is the Aram-Naharaim,or "Aram of the two Arab tribes yielded to tribes more or less Aramean. rivers" (ie. Tigris and Euphrates) of Scripture, also called Thus UZ or Huz (Assyrian Kha'su) is the firstborn of PADAN-ARAM (Padan and Alman are associated in Aram in Gen. x. 23, and of Nahor in Gen. xxii. 21; and old Babylonian inscriptions). The northern part of it, Buz, the Bazu of the Assyrians, to the south of Kha'su, termed Nahri by the Assyrians, Naharina by the Egyp-which was conquered by Esar-haddon, was a brother of tians, was inhabited by a number of non-Semitic tribes, sometimes supposed to be Turanian, but more probably Alarodian, and possibly akin to the Hittites. Northward were the mountains of Armenia or Ararat, with

Shamanism (so called from the "Shamans" or sorcerer-priests of Siberia) is a form of religion in which every object and phænohienon of nature is supposed to have a special spirit or god, who is far more powerful than man, and is accessible only through the sorcerer or priest,

Uz. Uz, it will be remembered, was the land of Job. On the western bank of the Euphrates, near Circesium (Assyrian Sirki), were the Zimri (Jer. xxv. 25), more Aramean than Arab, mentioned frequently on the Assyrian monuments.

() The Peoples of Egypt, i.e. the Valley of the Nile.

Also called Hyksos. They conquered Northern Egypt, and ruled it for several centuries. They are perhaps referred to in Gen. xliii. 32.

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